Net-Zero Energy Homes

Definition of a Net-zero Energy Home A Net-zero Energy Home (NZEH) is â€Å"capable of producing, at minimum, an annual output of renewable energy that is equal to the total amount of its annual consumed/ purchased energy from energy utilities† and emits zero net carbon (1). This concept is becoming increasingly popular as people are becoming more aware of the effects of buildings on the environment. However, to build a net-zero home, in-depth design considerations to minimize â€Å"the energy requirements for space heating, cooling and water heating† are required (2).This will result in the least amount of artificial ighting, heating, and air conditioning to be used to achieve human comfort level (2). Designing for Building Orientation The best building orientation for making efficient use of solar energy is south. Thus, running the buildings long axis from east to west and facing within 30 degrees of due south is strongly recommended (Figure 1). This allows the house to receive at least 90 percent of the optimal winter solar heat gain. The buildings south orientation should also be clear from obstacles to allow unblocked sunlight to enter the house (3).Use and Placement of Windows Windows let in sunlight but trap long-wave radiation, making the indoor temperature rise; however, in the absence of sunlight, windows let out considerable amount of heated air due to their high conductivity. To minimize this effect, selecting windows with special coatings are recommended. Window sizes have to be determined carefully because of these unique properties, to balance heat loss and heat gain: Net window area should be at least five percent of net floor area with each room or space having one or more windows.Glare can often become problematic especially through south-facing windows but this can be prevented by using low-emissivity oated windows. Sloped or horizontal windows such as skylights must be used with caution because they can become major areas of un controllable heat loss, overheating, and condensation (3). Controlling Airtightness Holes, cracks, floors, walls, ceilings, roofs, and outlets are all susceptible locations of air leakage. Air leakage equals energy leakage because as heated air leaks out of the building, the cooler air outside tends to get sucked into the building.Therefore, tight sealants around all Joints and openings are required. Proper Insulating Techniques An NZEH should also be well insulated around the building envelope to minimize eat transfer. This is achieved by using proper installation of insulation that meets the required R-value (Figure 2). This will not only minimize the energy loss but also reduce the need for supplementary heating (3). Providing Ventilation by Mechanical or Natural Systems Ventilation can either be mechanically or naturally provided.Before energy conservation became an issue to building occupants and the construction industry, buildings were not as airtight as they are today and na tural ventilation was sufficient. Building occupants could open and close windows for fresh air and continuous entilation was always present through the building's cracks and openings. In airtight buildings, natural ventilation is unreliable because buildings have fewer openings and cracks for natural air flow and the weather is often too cold or rainy for occupants to leave windows open for maintaining adequate relative humidity and fresh air circulation (4).One of the mechanical ventilation systems is the exhaust-only system, which exhausts air out of the building through an exhaust fan (Figure 3). This can be cost effective and functional provided that the building is airtight enough to run this system. If the building has cracks that act as an air path, the air that gets exhausted out can get sucked back into the building, essentially defeating the purpose of the system. Also, in humid climates, the exhaust-only system tends to cause condensation problems in wall cavities (4).Su pply-only ventilation provides fresh air through vents and is extremely effective in providing high indoor air quality when the system is designed and installed according to the building size and specifications. This system can also be combined with a heating system or a humidifying system to suit the occupants' needs. This system makes the indoor air pressure higher than the outdoor air pressure, which can work to the occupants' advantage if the building is located in hot and humid climates because the positive air pressure will resist the hot and humid pressure from getting sucked into the building.However, this is problematic in cold climates because hot and moist indoor air will push against the warm side of the wall cavities, which leads to condensation problems (5). An exhaust and supply balanced system is the most ideal system as it can serve all climates. Increasing the Efficiency of Furnace and Air Conditioner Systems Two of the major sources of energy consumption in todays households are the furnace in the winter and the air conditioner (A/C) in the summer. Increasing the quality and efficiency of the furnace and A/C will make some of the greatest returns in cost.Three main factors contribute to healthy and efficient furnace and A/C systems: Correct installation by qualified trades. Properly sealed supply and return duct system with approved tapes or mastics to minimize air loss. Continued maintenance throughout the lifetime of the furnace and A/C. Where space and cost conditions permit, consider ground-source heat pump echnology as opposed to ENERGY [email  protected] furnaces: â€Å"A ground-source heat pump uses the earth or ground water or both as the sources of heat in the winter, and as the â€Å"sink† for heat removed from the home in the summer.For this reason, ground- source heat pump systems have come to be known as earth-energy systems (EESs). Heat is removed from the earth through a liquid, such as ground water or an antifreeze solution, upgraded by the heat pump, and transferred to indoor air. During summer months, the process is reversed: heat is extracted from indoor air and transferred to the earth through the ground water or antifreeze solution. A direct-expansion (DX) earth-energy system uses refrigerant in the ground-heat exchanger instead of an antifreeze solution† (6). Figure : Schematic Diagram of a Ground-source Heat Pump Source: http://www. ge04va. vt. edu/A3/A3. tm Water Conservation Techniques through Efficient Water Distribution Systems After heating and cooling, water heating is typically the next largest energy user ot the home because it is necessary for so many domestic activities. Heating water is a large cost especially if a home has out-dated appliances. These next tips can substantially reduce energy consumption simply from water conservation based eating systems. Firstly, a tank less on-demand water heater is advantageous for residences already conserving water, for hot water users relatively close together, and for communities living where natural gas is readily available (Figure 5).Secondly, consider a solar hot water pre-heat system with a parallel piping system for the hot water outlets. Solar energy is the most economical and available energy source and should be utilized to its full potential. The key is to have a knowledgeable solar hot water instillation company perform the installation so proper instillation is achieved. Finally, another cost-effective method to conserve water usage is to install low-flow fixtures. Thousands of gallons of water are wasted everyday because of unnecessary use from high-flow fixtures. Figure : The Process of a tank less water heater Source: http://kerrygoldplumbing. om/tankless-gas-water-heaters Energy Efficient Lighting Fixtures and Lighting Energy efficient lighting fixtures, lighting, and energy efficient appliances meet a standard of reduced energy use rated by ENERGY STARL Such appliances consume significantly less energy and water than the standard products. Energy efficient ighting fixtures use about 25% the amount of energy of a regular incandescent light fixture (7). Such fixtures are specifically made to work with fluorescent or LED lights and therefore use less energy. Fluorescent light bulbs consist of a gas-filled tube and magnetic or electronic ballast (8).These bulbs last about 10 times longer (9 years at 3 hours/day) and run cooler than a standard incandescent light bulb (8). Light-emitting diode (LED) lighting consists of a semiconductor diode that converts applied voltage to light (9). LED lighting is available in many different colors and izes, has a lifetime of more than 22 years but still very expensive. Energy Efficient Appliances Energy efficient appliances are rated by ENERGY [email  protected] and use 10 to 50 percent less energy and water than standard models because these products use advanced technology in their systems (10).These appliances are readily available and can be found at all appliance retailers such as Future Shop, Best Buy and Sears. Photovoltaic (PV) systems Photovoltaic (PV) systems are comprised of solar cells which convert sunlight directly into electricity (11). These cells or semiconductor wafers, installed on the sun-facing ide of buildings, are protected from rain, hail and other inclement weather elements by a glass sheet (11). As photons from the sunlight knock electrons into an excited higher energy state, electricity is created and captured by the solar cells (11).These solar cells are connected in either series or parallel or both to form PV modules, and in applications the PV modules are arranged in arrays. PV systems produce D power and electricity fed into the electricity grid is converted by inverters to AC power. Current PVsystems in use have a 12 to 18 percent average efficiency in converting sunlight to electricity (11). Current developments have achieved an efficiency of 42 percent (11). Residential Applica tions for PV Systems In residential building, PVsystems are typically installed on roofs or on walls.Roof tiles with integrated PV cells can also be purchased. The use of the residential PV system allows the home to be connected to the electricity grid and surplus power deposited into the grid. To acquire a net-zero energy balance, the goal is to produce as much power from PV systems as you consume from the power grid, so that at the end of the year the homeowner pays absolutely nothing for power. The upfront cost f current PV systems is still relatively high typically costing installed (12).Working Towards a Canadian NZEH Building Standard Although there is currently no Canadian net-zero energy home building code, work is progressing to lead Canada towards such a building approach. Leading the way is the Net Zero Energy Home Coalition, formed in 2004, whose mandate is to promote existing and available energy efficient and renewable energy technologies to supply residential energy i n a sustainable manner in order to minimize the production of greenhouse gases and create healthier, greener communities (1).Comprised of ome builders and developers keen in applying renewable energy resources to residential building, the Coalition in partnership with the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC), Natural Resources Canada, Industry Canada, and Environment Canada, aims to establish a new Canadian NZEH building standard by 2030. To showcase the viability of NZEHs, the CMHC, supported by the Net-zero Energy Home Coalition, is currently leading a demonstration building project called the Initiative.Fifteen teams across Canada were selected to build demonstration homes using the various techniques discussed in the previous ections. To date, six of the fifteen homes have been completed in Alberta, Ontario, and Quebec (13). Initiative NZEH Examples – New and Old The Alstonvale Net Zero House is an example of new NZEH construction while the Now House Project dem onstrates how NZEH principles can be economically applied in home renovations. The Alstonvale Net Zero House The Alstonvale Net Zero House (shown on the cover) is a single-family detached house in Hudson, Qu ©bec currently under construction.It features an air-tight, well- insulated building envelope, extensive passive heating and cooling techniques hrough large south facing windows, sunscreens, and natural sources of shade (14). An air-to-water pump heating system connected to a PV system provides heated water for the in-floor radiant system and other domestic uses (Figure 9). Instead of standard landscaping, a large portion of the site will remain undisturbed and act as a natural habitat tor the local wildlite (14). The Now House Demonstration The Now House Project is a retrofit of a 60-year old home in Toronto, Ontario.The project goal was â€Å"to demonstrate how home owners and contractors can dramatically mprove the energy efficiency of existing homes with a few relatively simple modifications† (15). Energy requirements were reduced by upgrading the insulation, installing low-e, argon-filled windows and energy efficient ENERGY [email  protected] appliances, and replacing incandescent lighting with LED lighting (16). Increased energy efficiency and renewable energy production were accomplished through installation of solar hot water panels, a photovoltaic array, and a waste water heat recovery system (16).Figure : A Comparison of Energy Consumption between the Now House and Average Canadian Homes Source: http://www. mhc-schl. gc. ca/en/inpr/su/eqho/noho/ upload/Now-House_E-Oct30. pdf Figure 10 on page 8 compares energy consumption rates between the average Canadian home and the Now House w. Taking into account space heating, water heating, major appliances, interior lighting and space cooling, the Now House will consume only 38 percent as much energy as an average Canadian home (16). From this demonstration, the project shows that NZEH principl es are economically viable for renovating similarly older homes across the country. https://happyhealthyhome.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/hhh_report_final.pdfhttps://www.pinterest.com/aimej_r/maison-bioclimatique/http://www.whitebear.k12.mn.us/https://www.energystar.gov/ia/new_homes/features/Appliances_062906.pdfhttps://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/oee.nrcan.gc.ca/files/pdf/publications/infosource/pub/cipec/Managementguide_E.pdfhttps://www.energystar.gov/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamphttp://thefreedictionary.com/https://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=appliances.pr_energy_guidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaicshttp://www.energy.ca.gov/reports/2003-11-13_500-03-083F.PDFhttps://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/inpr/su/eqho/ecte/ecte_005.cfmhttps://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Mortgage_and_Housing_Corporationhttps://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/inpr/su/eqho/noho/

Mapp vs. Ohio Cort Case

Mapp V Ohio â€Å"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated,† Mapp V. Ohio (1961) dealt with that very sentence of the constitution. Were the officers at fault or Mapp? This complex question has a complex answer one that puzzled the Supreme Court and led to a change in criminal procedure. The verdict was a strict interpretation of the constitution. The fourth amendment was relevant because the fourteenth amendment grunted due process. It was a very good decision, it protected the black minority who at the time were being routinely harassed and convicted for no reasons. This decision certainly did not stop that but it made it harder for the police to seize evidence unlawfully and put a stop to bad practice of law at the state level. The land mark Supreme Court ruling on Mapp v Ohio changed the way people thought of the fourth amendment and how it could be applied to protect the individual form unlawful search and seizure. Previously the law surrounding the fourth amendment’s protection from unjust searches was extremely enigmatic. Its application varied form case to case until the Weeks rule was enacted in 1914. The Supreme Court ruled that evidence obtained via an illegal search and seizure was not admissible in federal court. However the Supreme Court did not make the states adopt the Weeks rule. The legal loop hole it created made it legal for states to present and prosecute with evidence detained in an unconstitutional tactic. In Mapp v Ohio a case that brought all the questions into the spotlight. On May 23, 1957, three Cleveland police officers arrived at appellant's residence in that city perusing information that â€Å"a person [was] hiding out in the home, who was wanted for questioning in connection with a recent bombing, and that there was a large amount of policy paraphernalia being hidden in the home. † Ms. Mapp was living with her daughter when the police officers arrived and demanded entrance to her home. After consulting her attorney she did not allow them in without a warrant. The officer’s left leaving one man to watch the house. Three hours later the police came back with more officers. After breaking down the door they brandished a piece of paper they claimed to be a warrant. Mapp snatched the piece of paper and stuffed it down her shirt. After a short altercation the â€Å"warrant† was retrieved. Immediately following the confrontation the officers’ embarked on a top to bottom search of the Mapp residence. They found no evidence of the gambling equipment or the suspect in the recent bombing. Frustrated with the fruitless search the police focused on a suitcase they found tucked under a bed. Inside the suitcase were a small collection of pornographic pictures and magazines. In Cleveland it is illegal to possess obscene materials. She was tried and convicted of possession of obscene materials. The constitutional question is whether or not the rights of the fourth amendment are viable in state courts. The fourth amendment gives the people the right to privacy and protects them from unlawful searches and seizures. When the Warren court ruled in favor of Mapp, Justice Clark cited two constitutional amendments that protected Ms. Mapp. â€Å"Since the Fourth Amendment's right of privacy has been declared enforceable against the States through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth, it is enforceable against them by the same sanction of exclusion as is used against the Federal Government. He reasoned that because the states had to abide by the fourth amendment’s right to privacy then the exclusionary rule should also be applied to state courts. Clark also addressed the concern of letting a criminal go when he or she is legally not guilty because of the excusatory rule, â€Å"it is the law that sets him free† and that â€Å"nothing can destroy a government more quickly than its failure to observe its own laws. † The law must be observed in all instances where it is viable. In the case of Mapp v Ohio the Warren court overturned her conviction by a vote of 6-3. Justice Clark wrote the decision and argued because the fourteenth amendment guaranteed protection in state court then the fourth amendment excusatory rule was clearly enforceable in state court. Clark cited the fat that 26 states had already adopted the excusatory rule. The Supreme Court could no longer trust the state courts to manage themselves. With discrimination and ill practice extensively practiced throughout the states the population was becoming tired of it. The bulk of society was ready for this ruling years before it occurred. Justice Clark had a history of dealing with fourth amendment cases ruling in favor of the defendant in United States v. Jeffers. The counter argument to the verdict was described by commentators as â€Å"the most significant limitation ever imposed on state criminal procedure by the Supreme Court in a single judgment. † Clamming that â€Å"justice would be obstructed and limited by procedure† The court’s decision to find Mapp innocent was a liberal ruling. When the ruling was made many police officers did not respect blacks. Mapp was a black women and that was a big part of the case. In that time it was acceptable to search and seize Negros belongings without a warrant and it was done on a regular basis. It was liberal because it protected the minority taking power away from state governments and greatly limiting the ability for the police to gather evidence in unlawful ways. When the verdict came to fruition many of the states fighting this verdict were also heavily opposed to the Brown vs. Board of Education case. The connection being that these racist states were worried blacks would gain rights and they would no longer be able to seize their belongings unlawfully. Once again this law took power away from these racist state governments and gave power to the blacks who were regularly- being harassed and having there belongings searched and seized. Illegal search and seizure has been an issue that plagued the court system for years. Flurries of cases were brought to the Supreme Court before and after Mapp vs. Ohio case. Many cases were decided in favor of illegal evidence being applicable in court. Such as Carroll v. United States 267 U. S. 132 (1925) a case that denied the suppression of evidence because it was illegally seized. George Carroll and John Kiro were arrested for the transportation of alcohol in violation of the Volstead Act (national alcohol prohibition) and subsequently convicted. The Supreme Court upheld the decision by a vote of 6-2. Weeks v. United States 232 U. S. 383 (1914) created the excusatory rule and was the first trial where evidence was deemed to be not viable in court because of the way it was gathered. The excusatory rule has been dumbed down a lot from its original scope and applications, several cases have limited the fourth amendment in court. United States v. Calandra, 414 U. S. 338 (1974) limited the rule by allowing evidence to be used to convict a man who was a loan shark. They had a warrant to search and seize gambling paraphilia, when an officer discovered and seized several documents relating to a loan shark operation. When he was being tried for this offense Calandra attempted to suppress the evidence because it was not specified in the warrant. The Supreme Court ruled that it was appropriate for use in the court. Justice Powel mad the decision, Powell limited the scope of the exclusionary rule in holding that it did not limit the government's ability to use illegally seized evidence in â€Å"all proceedings or against all persons†. Holding that the duties of a grand jury would be substantially hindered by allowing a witness to invoke the exclusionary rule while offering only a minimal limiting effect on police misconduct. Although no cases completely overturned the Mapp v. Ohio ruling several more cases did limit the power of the rule in favor of the greater good and not allowing criminals to walk because of a procedural issue. The overall impact of Mapp v. Ohio is immeasurable. The American people won a victory for privacy and seriously limited police’s ability to gather evidence. This was a good interpretation of the constitution. The fourteenth amendment clearly states that everyone is entitled to the due process of law, â€Å"nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. † Thus making the fourth amendment applicable in state courts.

Primary Health Care †Indigenous Australian Inequalities Essay

Page 1 The World Health Organisation (World Health Organisation, 2008) states that the indigenous peoples of Australia are one of the most disadvantaged indigenous groups in the developed world. The health of the Indigenous population of Australia is an increasingly pressing issue. Current research and statistics reveals great inequality in many areas of health care and health status between the Aboriginal people and the general population of Australia. Couzos and Murray (2008, p.29) report that the Indigenous population has â€Å"the worst health status of any identifiable group in Australia, and the poorest access to health systems. † This paper will examine the underlying historical contexts and contributing factors that have lead to the current disparity between the health of the Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians. Furthermore, the high prevalence of chronic health issues such as diabetes will be analysed and community health initiatives that are needed or currently being enacted will be identified. Many reasons for the current appalling state of health and wellbeing of the Australian Aboriginal people can be explained by examining their recent history to the devastating impacts of colonisation, genocidal policy, loss of land and years of oppression. These several hundred years of cultural destruction, dispossession and social and political upheaval have resulted in generations of trauma and grief (Burke, 2006, para. 4). As reported by Forsyth (2007, p.35-36), government policies enacted towards the indigenous population in the early 20th Century were concerned primarily with protection and segregation, as the prevailing attitude of the time was that the Indigenous people were largely inferior and were unable to care for themselves. Forsyth continues to explain of the injustice created by the New South Wales parliament with the Aborigines Protection Act of 1909, in which â€Å"every aspect of their lives was governed, regulated and controlled† (Forsyth, 2007, p. 36). Furthermore the Indigenous people of this era were not able to imbibe alcohol, own property, vote or cohabit with non-Indigenous people, and the state of their health was largely ignored due to the belief that they were a dying race. (Couzos et. Page 2 al. 2008, p. 3). Due to this essentially complete lack of health care, Forsyth describes the Aboriginal people of the era living on the outskirts of larger towns as suffering from high rates of blindness, infectious diseases, bone diseases and sexually transmitted infections (Forsyth, 2007, p.36). The severity of these health issues was made worse by fear and distrust of the Aboriginal people towards hospitals and white people (Forsyth, 2007, p. 37). As the 20th Century progressed it became obvious that the Aboriginal population was not a soon to be extinct race as earlier thought, and new political policy calling for assimilation and integration reflected this change, though protectionist and segregationist policies remained influential or continued until the 1970s (Couzos et.al. 2008, p. 4). In the 1960s attitudes of Australian society began to became more concerned for the wellbeing Indigenous people, with increased social conciousness and awareness spreading throughout the Western World. As a result of increasing political activity and demonstration, many Aboriginals were forced off stations in 1966, causing a large movement of Indigenous people to more urban areas such as Redfern (Couzos et. al. 2008, p. 7). This sudden increase in numbers highlighted the need for proper health care and services, with the first Aboriginal health service established in 1971. Throughout the 1970s an increase in research and reporting of Aboriginal health resulted in many state and commonwealth reports all with the same conclusion, that the health status of Aboriginal communities was appalling and that there was great â€Å"need for increased priority, increased resourcing, better coordination, and increased Aboriginal community participation and control† (Couzos et. al. 2008, p. 10). However very little action was taken until the 1990s2000s where relevant political policy was brought in and funding made available for Aboriginal health services, though they mostly remain inadequately funded and Aboriginal health care is still largely unrepresented and avoided by the Australian Government. The ongoing effects of racist and unjust political policy and action can in part explain current aspects of dysfunction and overall disadvantage that occurs in many Indigenous Page 3 communities today. Specifically this disadvantage is evident in many areas of community life, with Indigenous people being generally exposed to more risk factors for poor health than other Australians (Thomson, MacRae, Burns, Catto, Debuyst, Krom, Midford, Potter, Ride, Stumpers and Urquhart, 2010, para. 49). Examples of risk factors include social factors such as dispossession, dislocation and discrimination, educational factors such as poor schooling, resulting in much lower literacy and numeracy skills, economic factors such as lower income and higher unemployment, access to good quality health care and GP’s, and physical environmental factors such as poor and overcrowded housing. Together these disadvantages provide for a higher likelihood of poor lifestyle choices such as alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use, a poor and unbalanced diet, obesity and a lack of regular exercise (Thomson et. al. 2010, para. 49, Couzos et. al. 2008, p. 79). Poor access to good quality health care is one of the key predictors for the prevalence of poor health in a community. There are very few GP’s available in remote locations, and as a result of no or little access to professional health care providers, these remote areas are susceptible to poor health awareness and knowledge. As reported by Thomson et. al. (2010, para. 3), almost one-quarter of Indigenous people are classified as living in a remote area with very little access to goods and services or opportunities for social interaction. Couzos et. al. (2008, p. 18) also consider poor access to GP’s as shown by a 2000-2001 survey of GP’s. As reported, only 0. 8% of GP visits were by Indigenous people, though they make up 2. 6% of the general population. Furthermore, more than 70% of GP’s did not see a single Indigenous person during the survey period. This under representation of the Indigenous population visiting GP’s indicates a clear need for increased access to professional health care, and is just one factor of many which demonstrates the need for improvement in the health and wellbeing of the Australian Indigenous people. Page 4 Diabetes is a chronic metabolic condition which can result in many major long term health complications such as stroke, kidney disease, blindness and greatly reduced life expectancy (Allman, 2008, p. 80, Zeng, 2006, p. 73). Diabetes can be classified into three main types, with the second type, non-insulin-dependant diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) the main form developed as a result of lifestyle factors. As reported by Thomson et. al. (2010, para. 2), NIDDM is currently â€Å"one of the most important health problems for Indigenous populations across Australia†, with only around half of those with the condition know they have it, and the proportion of affected Indigenous population estimated to be around 4 four times that of the general population. Couzos et. al. (2008, p. 525) expand that Aboriginal people are also significantly more likely to develop NIDDM at a much younger age, more likely to be hospitalised, and to die from associated complications. This over representation of diabetes in the Indigenous population is a result of their poor health status and education. Thomson et. al. (2010) report that many studies have linked high levels of obesity among Indigenous populations and high prevalence of NIDDM. The main factors linked to this high levels of obesity are the relatively recent availability of highly processed and sugary Western foods and drinks including alcohol and tobacco use, impaired glucose tolerence, hypertriglyceridaemia, hypertension, hyperinsulinaemia and a higher level of physical inactivity than non-Indigenous people (Thomson et. al. 2010). Diabetes prevalence is also linked to a lower socioeconomic status, and as previously examined, a high proportion of the Indigenous population suffer from many areas of disadvantage, which results in a lower socioeconomic status. As further explained by Thomson et. al. (2010) these effects are further aggravated by poor health promotion and knowledge, mental illness and stress, early emotional development and social status, and recent trends indicate increasing development and prevalence of NIDDM. Clearly the Aboriginal population is exposed to many risk factors for diabetes and other chronic conditions, and with increasing development trends, explains poor mortality rates and overall poor health status of their communities. Page 5. Community based programs are essential for the improvement of Indigenous health due to the close-knit nature of their culture and often remote location. This was begun in 2003 at national level with the development of The National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, which targeted strengthening of health service infrastructure, accessibility to health services, and health promotion, most importantly the importance of balanced nutrition and regular exercise (Couzos et. al. 2008, p.522, Insel, Ross, McMahon and Bernstein, 2010, p. 653). Cribbes and Glaister (2007, p. 167) describe the importance of health promotion and awareness at the community level, with a focus on re-establishing more traditional food choices and encouraging traditional hunting skills. The traditional Indigenous diet is highly nutritious, being high in protein, low in fat and high in complex carbohydrates, and as considered by Cribbes et. al. (2007, p. 167) is an excellent way to protect against chronic conditions such as diabetes. However the majority of remote Indigenous peoples obtain their food from local stores, thus initiatives such as the Remote Indigenous Stores and Takeaway Project were undertaken to establish minimum healthy eating standards and to educate store managers in nutrition. By empowering local store managers in this way, they are able to further educate the local schools and wider community in healthy eating (Cribbes. et. al. 2007, p. 167). As reported by the Dragon and Anderson (2011, p.28), Close The Gap (CTP) is another national level campaign which has a carry on effect to the community level. CTP aims to resolve the disparity in life expectancy rates and health equality between Aboriginal Australians and the general population, and has been endorsed by federal and state governments. CTP focuses on management of chronic conditions such as diabetes and follow up care. Management and awareness of diabetes is an essential component of improving health standards, and as King (2001, p.147-155) explains, Aboriginal people with diabetes commonly avoid mainstream health services for their health care. This mismanagement can lead to the development of diabetes related complications and greatly reduced quality Page 6 of life and life expectancy. On going strategies and studies identified the need for Aboriginal health workers to deliver community level care and health services for successful diabetes management (King, 2001). In conclusion, Aboriginal health standards have been of an appalling standard for many years due to racist policies, attitudes and in-humane treatment. The damage done and denigration of their lives, families and cultures has only recently began to be repaired by collective efforts nation wide, with a unified goal of self and community-empowerment, improvement of quality of life and living standards. With the expansion and ongoing deliverance of community focused solutions, many risks for ill-health and chronic conditions can be greatly reduced and the health status disparity between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians can in the future be eliminated. Page 7 References: †¢ Allman, T. (2008) Genes & disease : diabetes. New York; Infobase Publishing. †¢ Dragon, N. and Anderson, K. (2011). Indigenous health. Australian Nursing Journal, 19(2), 24-8. †¢ Burke, S. (2006). Changing practices, changing paradigms: working effectively with Indigenous clients. Australian Psychological Society. Retrieved October, 5, 2011 from http://www. psychology. org. au/publications/inpsych/changing/ †¢ Couzos, S. & Murray, R. (2008). Aboriginal primary health care: An evidence-based approach. South Melbourne; Oxford University Press. †¢ Cribbes. M. and Glaister. K. (2007). ‘It’s not easy’: caring for Aboriginal clients with diabetes in remote Australia. Contemporary Nurse, 25; 163-172. †¢ Forsyth (2007). Telling stories: nurses, politics and aboriginal australians, circa 19001980s. Contemporary Nurse, 24(1), 33-44. Insel, P. , Ross, D. , McMahon, K. and Bernstein, M. (2010). Nutrition. Massachusetts; Jones and Bartless Publishers. †¢ King, M. (2001). The diabetes health care of Aboriginal people in South Australia. Contemporary Nurse, 10(3,4), 147-155. Page 8 †¢ Thomson N, MacRae A, Burns J, Catto M, Debuyst O, Krom I, Midford. R, Potter C, Ride K, Stumpers S, Urquhart B (2010). Summary of Australian Indigenous health, 2010. Retrieved October. 6, 2011 from http://www. healthinfonet. ecu. edu. au/health-facts/summary †¢ World Health Organization. (2008). Closing the Gap in a generation. Health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Commission on Social Determinants of Health Final Report. Retrieved October, 6, 2011 from http://www. who. int/social_determinants/thecommission/finalreport/en /index. html †¢ Zeng, Y. (2006). Longer life and healthy aging. Philadelphia; Springer.

Employee Testing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Employee Testing - Essay Example The inclination headed for much greater candidate groups has also added to a rising confidence on data-driven ability administration practices that reorganize the hiring procedure. According to studies done by the American Management Association (AMA), pre-employment testing has been increasing progressively in the previous fifteen year2. There are different types of tests used by employers. They include intelligence tests, personality tests, integrity test, and job knowledge tests and also work illustrations. Job knowledge tests normally use numerous choice questions to appraise practical or professional capability and knowledge essential for exact jobs.  These tests are done by hiring managers. These tests are usually peer-to-peer and replicate actual business responsibilities that applicants have to complete, in case they are picked for the task. The questions are business and job related which candidates require to submit their replies for so as to demonstrate their capabilities3. There are also personality tests used by employers. Personality tests usually quantify qualities related to behavior at the work environment, social relations, and fulfillment with diverse characteristics of work.   Personality tests are mostly used to evaluate whether persons have the potential to be prosperous in jobs where performance needs a boundless deal of social contact or ability to work in a team .Intellectual ability tests are questions that evaluate one’s pace of learning, reading, comprehending and the general mental capability. Intellectual ability tests measure an individual’s ability to unravel job-related difficulties by giving information about their intellectual capacities such as mathematical reasoning and perceptual abilities4. Situational verdict tests are frequently used as employee-selection and employee-screening

Aspirin Use and Pancreatic Cancer Mortality in a large United States Essay

Aspirin Use and Pancreatic Cancer Mortality in a large United States Cohort - Essay Example Jacobs et al. examined the association between these two through the Cancer Prevention Study II (CPS II), a large group of U. S. adults. In the past, aspirin use had been shown to decrease the risk of colon, stomach, and esophageal cancer in the same group. The group consisted of 1,184,588 people in all, with 508,318 males and 676,270 females who came from all U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico (Jacobs et al. 2004, p. 524). In 1982, the group completed a four page questionnaire that gave data regarding â€Å"demographics characteristics and various behavioral, environmental, occupational, and dietary factors† (Jacobs et al., 2004, p. 524-525). In 1982, 1984, 1986 and 2000 follow ups were conducted to see if the group members were alive or dead. It was found that 28.1% of them had died and 0.2% could not be traced, whereas 71.7% were alive. A few of the participants had been excluded from the study based on their cancer history, cigarette smoking, o r missing data on aspirin use. Resultantly, 987,590 participants were left, out of which 4577 died from pancreatic cancer (Jacobs et al., 2004, p. 525). Statistics were gathered using the information given by the participants in their 1982 questionnaires, and the Cox model of proportional hazards was used to analyze the ratio of deaths caused by pancreatic cancer, and other potential risk factors, for instance cigarette smoking, dietary habits and family history of pancreatic cancer, were adjusted in the findings (Jacobs et al., 2004, p. 525). The frequency of aspirin intake was also taken into account, and it was discovered that most of those who took aspirin regularly, i.e. more than 30 times a month, were older and white, just like the majority of participants, who were mostly middle aged or elderly and white (Jacobs et al., 2004, p. 526). The results showed that there was no relationship between aspirin use and pancreatic cancer mortality. The result was similar

Debate over Universal Healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Debate over Universal Healthcare - Essay Example In some nations like United Kingdom and Spain, the government has highest level of involvement in providing health care to all the citizens based on the residential status where insurance coverage is not mandatory. In Britain, the National Insurance Act 1911 can be considered as the initiative taken towards the provision of universal health care. It covered the salaried employees and their family members who contributed monitorily towards the health care setups. However, it continued up to 1948 when the National Health Service was created and universal health care security was provided to all legal residents. In some other nations, the governments involve insurance agencies to operate the health schemes and the beneficiaries and their employers are asked to pay the premiums for their health care facilities. In several European nations, the efforts for establishing the universal health care systems were launched immediately after the second world war and one shouldn’t forget th e contribution made by Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 in this process. However, nations like USA didn’t implement the universal health care system (Armstrong et al., 1999; Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science, 2004.). Overall, the universal health care is operated in several nations, what ever the style may be, and we have to see whether it is successful in meeting the health requirement of people. If so, why not this universal health care is implemented in all other nations? This makes us to debate over the advantages and disadvantages of the universal health care system and let us analyse them one by one. Universal health care is a broad concept that has been implemented in many countries and was found to be highly useful for the benefit of the people (Conrad, 2008). The main advantage of this system is to ensure the social security to all the citizens of the country. In other words, health is a

The Human Life Cycle Stages Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

The Human Life Cycle Stages - Essay Example The human being begins as a single cell is achieved after the fertilization between a female cell and a male cell. As the human cells specialize and duplicate into parts of the body, this period takes nine months in a woman after then the infant is born (Bellamy 42). This stage is different from the fact that before the infant is born a woman has to nine months because there are some infants who are born with seven, eight and others nine months. The infants who are born with less than nine months appear to have problems mentally, physically while others continue with the associated problems throughout their lifetime. In the real sense, the greatest percentage does not survive, and if they do their lifespan is not that long (Rufus). Infancy is the second stage in life after which the baby is totally dependent upon his or her parents for food, movement from one place to another, bathing, and of course changing. The infant is referred to as the troublesome toddler. In this stage, proper protection is given to the baby since this is the time the infant will develop some sounds (Kalman 34). On the other hand, the infant can be born after the normal nine months, but the infant will take a long time without the development of any sound. Biologically this is due to disabilities which originate from the growth of the infant, where in some cases the infant ends up stammering, late development of the sound or never develops any of the sounds in his or her full lifetime (Bogin 68). Childhood is the next step in the infancy where the child is in the ages between 3 to 10 years. This is the stage that the child runs how to make some movements from one place to another, development of teeth, and development in the growth of body size. The brain starts developing since the child can now play with objects, other children can run and can make decisions over certain issues, which he or she comes across (Bobbie 78). The stage is characterized by the complete pronunciation of the words and then the child is taken to school for the advancement of knowledge.  

Analysis of Direct Cost Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis of Direct Cost - Assignment Example This provision is both advantageous and disadvantageous in that the VectorCal Company will readily acquire iron and steel hence evading searching and high transportation costs. On the other hand, it will be harmful to the company if the steel and iron producing companies in the US decide to charge high prices of their products due to the absence of open markets to trigger competition, which will eventually lead to lower competitive prices in the industry. The other raw materials needed include magnets, cameras, sensors, and compasses that will provide information on nearby vessels or vehicles or other obstacles or hazards. Labor costs incurred will include payments to the engineers and experts involved in the construction of the drone navigation systems. Technological costs will include acquisition costs of inertial sensors, on-board electronics (the motherboard and the navigation board), embedded software (enables Wi-Fi communications, image processing, video data sampling etc.), velocity estimators etc. The technological component ensures efficiency and reliability of the drone navigation systems. Licensing fees of VectorCal Company will form part of the indirect costs. Other indirect costs likely to be incurred by the company include management costs, insurance payments, taxes to the US government, maintenance expenses etc. (Lupashin et al., 2010). DroneIn, company will operate in the same industry as that of VectorCal Company and hence will experience similar costs to those of VectorCal. The construction of the drone navigation systems is standard and this implies that the requirements are similar regardless of the company that constructs the drone systems. However, the only notable difference that will occur will be in terms of how each company will control its costs of production or manufacturing. For both companies, raw materials like iron and steel will be necessary because these are the core metals that are used in the construction

How telecommuting can negatively impact innovation at work Essay

How telecommuting can negatively impact innovation at work - Essay Example As Gajendran & Harrison (2007), points out, telecommuting minimizes feedback, coordination, and supervision. One of these alterations is how employees are supervised. For instance, telecommuting removes the employee from the viewing area of the supervisor and impedes the supervisor from being able to observe the performance of the employers directly. For another thing, the employee’s dependence on the supervisor is reduced, employees will have to work out more inventiveness and might have to make extra decisions on their own, because a supervisor will not be available to guide them stage by stage. This can bring effects to the organization whenever employees come up with bad decisions. Moreover, telecommuting reduces in-person contacts if your clienteles are adapted to high-level direct contact with the workers that handle their activities. Additionally, telecommuting reduces the workforce in the office, and this leads to stress in the non-commuting employees. Turetken et al. (2011), states that those workers that stay in the offices tend to feel left out of the advantages of telecommuting, such as flexible hours and feel bitter that their colleagues have the choice of working in a more relaxed place. Also, if there is no update on the communication systems of the organization to replicate a disseminated workforce, the non-telecommuting staff might experience an amplified workload and the weight of the client communication problem. Telecommuters might have a difficult time building and retaining relationships with their co-workers, which might interfere with the overall job satisfaction and productivity. Since relations often lead to confidence and operational collaboration, telecommuting can deteriorate the complete atmosphere. On the other hand, telecommuting can impair teamwork. Workers who usually work together phy sically will require ways to present and review work, specifically on a casual level. Therefore, there might be a depression in productivity

What is economic diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

What is economic diplomacy - Essay Example on the part of the countries to negotiate the right course of action which is required for the economic as well as the trade activities and processes for the different players present in the market or the industry for that matter. These could include the tactics which are there for the short term aimed as making alliances and mergers and the strategic shifts towards social development with the help of growth and cooperation hand in hand. The international political and economic relations between different states and countries has promoted as well as saved the varied interests of these nations when it comes to the relevant discussion regarding the economic diplomacy. The superpowers of the world are focusing their attention on the well being of their respective economies whereby the production levels in these countries in relation to different goods and the provision of services has increased and got better in the years that have passed by. There is so much competition that a nation cannot stay at a place for a considerable period of time and it needs to evolve and change its direction every now and then. Economic diplomacy ensures that the countries remain on their toes to the ever changing market conditions and remain attentive to the industrial amendments which happen from time to time. Thus the countries carry out their external economic relations with the help of the tool that we call as the economic diplomacy. This is not a new phenomenon in the related contexts but surely one which will stick on for years to come in the field of economic development and prosperity of nations. The changing role of the nations in the wake of their joining different alliances and treaties like NAFTA, WTO, EU, ASEAN and the like suggests that there is constant upheaval on the domestic and international front and that the diplomatic activities will continue to suffice in the times to come. Economic diplomacy takes care of the factors which include aid, trade, reduction in

Position on the conroversial subject of poverty Essay

Position on the conroversial subject of poverty - Essay Example When a person lives in poverty he often does not have enough money to provide himself and his family with the basic human needs which include food, shelter, and medicine. The biggest victims of the poverty dilemma are children. Children are innocent by standards that are suffering. In a lot of countries across the world adults are exploiting children by forcing them to work. There are nearly 250 million children who are child laborers. The United States is not exempt from the war against poverty. There are nearly 44 million children on food stamps in the United States which accounts for 21% of the children population of the nation (Snyder, 2011). The high cost of living in the United States is one of the reasons a lot children and adults are living in poverty. The continents that are suffering the most from poverty are Africa and Asia. The overpopulation in Asia is one the reasons that this ethnic group is suffering so much from poverty. The root of the poverty problem is income disc repancy. The poorest 40 percent of the world’s population accounts for 5 percent of global income, while the richest 20 percent accounts for three-quarters of world income (Globalissues, 2013). Something has to be done in order to create a better balance of the global wealth. Another major issue associated with poverty is that the governments across the world do not have sufficient resources to help their citizens. The majority of the global wealth is in the hands of corporations. Approximately 40% of the global wealth is owned by a tightly-knit cluster of 147 entities (Doctorow, 2011). These companies along with the other millions of businesses across the world have to become more proactive in the fight against poverty. The United Nations has to step in and impose solutions that will effectively change the course of history in order to eradicate poverty forever. A potential solution that the U.N. can implement is to create a special tax with the purpose of using that money s olely to provide financial aid to poor people in need. The tax would be imposed on corporations whose annual net income surpasses $1 million per year. Corporations that move millions of dollars can afford to pay that special tax without hurting the financial performance of the firm or adversely affecting its shareholders. The special tax to be imposed by the U.N should be 2.5% of net income. There has to be a better coordinated effort in order to fight poverty worldwide. A lot of nonprofit organizations such as Feed the Children are doing a wonderful job of fighting hunger and poverty worldwide. A group of consortiums must be establish in which the leaders of non-profit organizations in different countries meet at least once a month in order to discuss the efforts of each entity so that better coordination can be establish by these entities. Every citizen in the world must become more actively involved in this tough battle. Donating $10 a month by people that are part of the middle class would make a huge difference in the lives of poor people. The fight against poverty is an issue that affects everyone. Any person that is working can fall on hard times if they lose their job and poverty can become a reality for them. Entrepreneurs must keep applying innovation in order to create new jobs that will help poor people get out of poverty. The proposed special 2.5% by the U.N. is a major tactic that would have a huge impact in helping eradicate

An argument in favor of abortion supporting a womans right to freedom Essay Example for Free

An argument in favor of abortion supporting a womans right to freedom Essay Is there ever a case, when one persons religious preference should be allowed to encroach on another person’s right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness? Today many Americans justify their intrusion by siting Articles and Amendments to the Constitution of the United States.   In particular, they speak of the freedom of speech, religion, the right to bear arms, etc.   It seems as though the freedoms are only valuable when everyone shares the same beliefs, morals, and values.   But are these freedoms also guaranteed for those whose values may not be the same as the majority?   As Americans is it not possible to differ and hold different beliefs in pursuit of liberty?   What makes one persons beliefs more valuable under the constitution than another person? A lot of people do not support abortion because they believe it is killing baby. When most abortions occur, which in the first trimester â€Å"†¦a cluster of cells or a less than half ounce fetus is not anywhere close to a definition of an actual baby.† (4) Scientists use the term fetus and not a baby because a baby â€Å"†¦could be born and survive outside the mother’s womb†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (4) and a fetus could not. A fetus is nowhere near ready to live outside the mothers womb and â€Å" There is no real functioning brain, therefore no real humanity.† (4) So in reality abortions do not terminate babies, they terminate a fetus that could not survive outside the mother’s womb. Another reason people are not for abortion is that of religious beliefs. Some believe that terminating any form of life in the mother’s womb is wrong no matter the reason and â€Å"Those religiously opposed to abortion in the first two trimesters are free not to have them.†(9) Just because abortion is legal does not mean people are going to be forced to go out and participate in them. Abortion being legal does not impose on anyone’s rights or make anyone do anything they do not want to do. Therefore, if abortion goes against someone’s religious beliefs they are free not to go and get one. People who do not want abortion legalized talk about how it goes against their religion but what about the religion of the woman partaking in the abortion? Not everyone has the same beliefs or sees things the same as others. By trying to make abortion illegal it infringes on citizens rights. If â€Å"†¦my brothers and sisters in the United Church of Christ, who do not see the bible they way you see it, are free to make their own choices†¦ isn’t that freedom of religion too?† (9) People cannot talk about how abortion imposes on the pro-choices religion without talking about the religious freedom of the woman undergoing the procedure. If a woman’s beliefs tell her to do what is best for her The last topic is how making abortion illegal will take away a woman’s right by forcing her to stay pregnant. There are various reasons why a woman chooses to have an abortion. Whether it is because the woman is not ready for kids emotionally or financially, the baby was produced by rape or incest, or she simply just may not want kids and etc.   For people who are pro-choice â€Å"†¦ If your side ever wins, then my daughter and her daughter will be forced to stay pregnant, when their life circumstances†¦ would be much better served if they could safely terminate the fetus†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (7) So for people out there who are wanting abortion to illegal, in a sense, they want a woman to be forced to be pregnant even if that is not what is best for the woman. If abortion stays legal â€Å" we haven’t forced your daughter or her daughter after her, to do anything against their will.† (7) By keeping abortion legal no ones rights will be infringed on and no on e is forced to do anything they do not want to do. The same cannot be said if abortion was made illegal. In conclusion, abortions do not terminate babies it terminates fetuses. If abortion goes against someone’s religious beliefs they are free not to have them but do not forget about the religious freedom of the woman undergoing the abortion. People who do not support abortion will never be forced to do something against their will whether its legal or illegal but making abortion illegal will force a woman to stay pregnant against their will. These were just a few reasons why I think abortion should stay legal.

Autonomy in elderly care: A literature review

Autonomy in elderly care: A literature review Introduction Older persons in history have been regarded as dependent because of the physical body changes that come with growing older. These physical changes greatly affect the normal functioning and the effectiveness with which they operate and hence the need for external support both at the physical and social levels (Agich, 2003). As the physical energy wanes, so does the level of activity not only to support themselves physically but also on a wider scale. It is these very changes that bring to light the issues of care and dependence of older persons on caregivers and/or family support. However and important to note, like in the rest of other social groups, older persons are a heterogeneous group in terms of gender, race, culture, class and otherwise (Bond and Corner, 2004) and therefore, there needs vary accordingly. Further, as Bond and Cabrero (113: 2007) point out, mental and physical incapacity and disability which lead to dependence are common stereotypes of human ageing. Older people in care or not have been seen as frail and therefore unable to make decisions, communicate, and engage in meaningful relationships with their surrounding environment. As a result, their autonomy in care has been compromised. Jacob (1999) cited in Townsend (2009) compounds it further that professionals and families of older people as well consciously and unconsciously bear discriminatory assumptions about them. To this end, this paper explores autonomy of older people in care in depth, evaluates existing social work practice and suggests strategies to ensure both caregivers and service users promote an interdependence that would help in reinforcing control and respect for service users. Collopy (1988) defines autonomy as a set of notions that promote freedom, self-determination, independence that is signifying control and the power to make decisions by the individual. From a medical view point once one is admitted into care they are not well and therefore cannot cope on their own let alone make decisions. Because of this, they are viewed as patients who are incapacitated and therefore have to depend on caregivers. However, one wonders whether all older persons are incapacitated on all fronts. Even when they are fragile, do the Caregivers have sufficient expertise to socialize and communicate with them? These and other questions remain largely unanswered. This view therefore tends to ignore the strengths and abilities of the older persons. Like Runciman cited in Bond and Corner (2004) explains, in understanding social status, it is more meaningful to study individuals from their perspective and values so as correct judgments are made about them. Like all other social groups, older people too would be better understood from the view point of their everyday experiences at an individual level other than having to impose what we think is best for them. This would imply that understanding older persons’ desires means a lot to them rather than assuming that we know all they need. Understanding of Autonomy and Care for Older Persons Contextually Autonomy as a concept connotes a different set of meanings depending on the setting or context. It is defined differently in a sense that it means different things to different users and therefore taking one meaning or usage would very much complicate its very usage at the different cultural and societal levels on the whole (Agich, 2003). The fact that it spells out different meanings and qualities, in care for older persons too, would be quite a challenge for both the service users and the Caregivers themselves. Autonomy as a cultural ideal under the guise of freedom of choice especially in the western context is very much viewed as a necessary feature for any individual. In regard to United States for example, freedom is seen as a basic of life and therefore without which, is deprivation of an individual of a basic right (Agich, 2003). It is important to note that this freedom starts at birth throughout life and therefore including in old age, whether in care or not. In care too, w ithout the liberty for one to advance their choices would be seen as degrading by the service user and therefore subservient to the caregiver (Agich, 2003). However this raises the question of what might happen when the service user is suffering from a severe cognitive impairment? This clearly indicates the challenge of according full autonomy to service users. On the other hand in countries like South Africa where the elderly are seen as very important assets within their communities, it is argued that freedom begins with avoiding taking elders away from their very communities to institutionalized care (Lombard and Kruger, 2009). Institutionalized care would be seen as denying older persons an environment they consider natural and fulfilling. This entails an environment which allows them to share their older age with their kith and kin; who in this case know them better and therefore interdependence remains natural. Further, this kind of setting allows for respect and control of older persons based on cultural values. Even when older persons are mentally incapacitated, the family caregiver will know what they have always desired that is, their favorite food, dressings, entertainment and the like. This in a sense allows for older persons freedom in a manner that is fulfilling in this kind of context. However, it cannot go without mention th at this kind of setting requires strong family structures that allow for time and financial capacity from the family members to take care of the elderly. With the spread of neo-liberalism that promotes capitalism and individualism, some of these especially extended family systems have broken down hence rendering older persons susceptible to dependence on hired caregivers in a family setting or institutional care (Lombard and Kruger, 2009). Evaluation of Existing Social Work Practice and Care Provision for Older People Inasmuch as the intentions of care for older persons are seen as good, the outcomes of both institutionalized and family care are not always pleasant (Talerico, 2004). When service users are put into care, the assumption is that it is for the wellbeing of the service users because they are being given help physically, socially and otherwise. This in many a case does not always happen because of the very nature of how older person are perceived in the eyes of the caregivers. The societal perceptions of older persons delude caregivers of the capacities and strengths that service users possess. As Townsend (2006) theorizes it, these very perceptions give birth to the ideas of ‘structured dependence’ for older persons. For example a situation where the state deliberately introduces structures and policies like compulsory institutional care for older persons that are very much underpinned by the very disempowering and biased perceptions held strongly by society. Caregivers base their understanding of service users on the very notions they grow up with which in many cases misguides their treatment of older persons (Jacobs, 1999 cited in Townsend, 2003). In which case, service users find themselves in a difficult situation that is, cannot voice their concerns either because the surrounding environment is not supportive enough or for fear of retaliation from the caregivers (Townsend, 2006). In an investigation conducted in the United Kingdom by ‘Help the Aged International’ (2002), older persons in long-term care have suffered a series of blows partly due to the lack of quality assurance on part of the institutions and also a lack of competence from the caregivers on how to communicate with service users to deliver the required services (Townsend, 2006). A classic example in this investigation highlights a woman who was suffering from Alzheimer’s disease; she was dying of dehydration but no one could tell and she finally pas sed on. This is clearly an indication of lack of expertise on part of the Caregivers and as well an indicator of many others who are in the same or even worse-off situation. The fact that they could not communicate with her, they decided to take matters in their own hands; clears indicates of how dependence on Caregiver can get messy especially when there is a lacking in skills or quality assurance by the caregivers whether in institutional or family setting. On the other hand, very few studies explore the experience of older persons’ autonomy in care, whether in institutionalized or family in the developing world. Nonetheless, in a study conducted in South Africa, there is an indication of a shift in policy of primarily taking away older persons from institutionalized care to community based care with a view of keeping them closer to their kith and kin (Lombard and Kruger, 2009). However, due to issues of neo-liberalism which advance capitalism and individualism, this leaves older persons in family care at even greater risk as would-be caregivers opt for work and hire caregivers who despite the cultural attachment with these older persons, are little known to the service users. Despite being in family settings, little is known whether the hired caregivers promote values of preferences and control of older persons. This puts the issues of meaningful relationships and interdependence in question for the older person in this kind of setting. As cited by Zubi and Conolly (2013), as well in cases where the institutional care exists, there are cases of understaffing and under funding of care activities for older persons. As a result, this raises the levels of fatigue and emotional exhaustion which leads to compromise in the quality of care. This is a clear depiction that with burnout of caregivers, self-determination of service users is not anything that would be given priority. Further, in a study conducted by Leece and peace (2009), in which an attempt to understand what autonomy and independence of service users in care meant to caregivers, majority of them concluded that a service user had to be in a position to do everything on their own. Considering the wider and contextual understanding of autonomy; for example in terms of decision making and positive relationships, this is an indicator of how caregivers unconsciously take service users for granted in care and hence a need for evaluation of social care practice. It is important to note that inasmuch as some service user are not in a position to make decisions on their own, Talerico (2003) stresses that caregivers have taken no initiative in trying to understand how to communicate with them so as to create an environment of interdependence; that is understanding their daily activities, abilities, values and histories. All this would go a long way in shaping the caregiver’s approach to interdepen dence in care (Agich, 2003). Strategies to Improve Older Persons’ Autonomy in Care As stressed by Talerico (2004), care settings are congregated environment in which the most important thing is maximizing health and support. She adds that these very goals defeat the very purpose of autonomy because as oppose to individual choices generalist care is promoted. It should be noted however that this can raise ethical questions because service users are different and therefore their needs vary. As fronted by Leece and Peace (2009), establishment of personalized care for services users would go a long way in addressing this. This means that caregivers give a special attention to individual to not only understand their histories, values and choices but establishing effective skills of communicating with them on the whole. Even older persons with cognitive difficulties can communicate (Agich, 2003). Therefore, Caregivers must be equipped with these skills to give more meaning to care for older persons. From the earlier discussion of caregivers who understood autonomy of older persons in care as only being able to perform tasks independently, it is very clear that communities of practice are very important. These mainly refer to a multidisciplinary approach to working with older persons in care. This emphasizes working with different professionals who work together to determine what’s best for service users (wenger et al cited in May, 2009). As nurses focus on the medical component, social workers focus on their values and preferences and policy makers advance policies that promote older people’s necessities at all levels. This promotes a better understanding older person whether in care or not. As well, this implies better working relationship not only among professionals but also with service users who are engaged at different levels. Further, this in a sense, promotes interdependence among them as dependence is phased out. In addition to promoting a better understan ding older persons, specialist skills training would be important for the effective intervention of professionals at different levels. This explains the case for being able to communicate, identify their strengths and abilities and the like. Advocacy for the rights of older people would serve to bring their issues to the forefront (HelpAge International, 2010). Historically and socially, older people have been looked at from a medical view point as frail and therefore unable to perform task let alone making their own decisions. This is clearly a sweeping generalization that does not fit the bracket of all older persons. But because this has been the case for a long time, it has come to be accepted and upheld. This line of thought therefore very much underpins the policies and activities that are geared towards older people where they are seen as ‘dependent’ as oppose to partners in working. Therefore, in deconstructing this line of thought, advocacy through community dialogue and raising aware awareness of older persons’ issues autonomy in care among which, would go a long way rectifying the age-old negative connotations about ageing. As communities accept to dialogue and become aware of the reality o f old age, policies and agendas will begin to come up. In the long run this shapes the societal outlook of older persons at every single level. HelpAge International (2010) highlights how Tanzanian older women have been branded witches by their societies. As a result, this explains the kind of nasty treatment that they have been accorded whether in care or not. But by dialoguing with communities, the trend is changing for the better. Important to note is that advocacy would not directly promote autonomy in care for older persons but rather it goes a long way in pushing for older persons’ concerns high on the agenda. With the guidance of social workers, this in the short run would guide social policy and in the long run challenge and change societal outlook of ageism. Conclusion In a nutshell, if older persons are to gain control over their lives in care, then there needs to be a re-conceptualization of caring for older people; â€Å"where caregivers become supporters and advocates but not custodians and guardians as it were† (Nolan et al, 2001). As oppose to older persons being passive recipients of care, they become active participants who have some sort of control over their life while in care. This very much promotes interdependence between service users and caregivers. Concretely, as advanced by Rogers (1974), an individual-centered approach to caring, where the service user is placed at the centre of activities, would help caregivers in identifying the specific strengths and abilities of service users and therefore creating better working relationships which in the end promote interdependence and an acceptable level of control of service users. References Agich G. J. (2003) Dependence and Autonomy in Old age: An Ethical framework for Long-term Care, 2nd Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Bond, J and Cabrero, G.R. (2007) Ageing in Society: European perspectives on Gerontology 3rd Edition, London: Sage publications Bond, J and Corner, L. (2004) Quality of life and Older people, 1st edition, McGraw Hill: Open University Press Fine, M. and Glendinning, C. (2005) ‘Dependence, independence or inter-dependence? Revisiting the concepts of ‘care’ and ‘dependency’. Ageing and Society, 25, 601-21, available online at http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/1653/1/dependency.pdf [accessed 2 January 2014] HelpAge International (2010) Women’s rights in Tanzania. [Online] Available from http://www.helpage.org/what-we-do/rights/womens-rights-in-tanzania/ [Accessed 3 January 2014]. Katz, P.R., R.L. Kane, Mezey, and D. Mathy (Eds.). 1995. Quality Care in Geriatric Settings: Focus on Ethical Issues. New York: Springer. Leece, J and Peace, S (2010) Developing New Understandings of Independence and Autonomy in the Personalized Relationship. British Journal of Social work, 40, 1847–1865. Lombard, A. Kruger, E. (2009) older persons, the case of South Africa. Ageing International, 34: 119 – 135, available from http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=0294ee3e-afec-4dad-882a-3b6fd4656d61%40sessionmgr4001vid=2hid=4204 [Accessed 1 January 2014] May, L. A. (2009) Communities of practice in Health and Social Care. 2nd edition, Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell Nolan, M., Davies, S., and Grant, G. (2001) Working with older people and their families. Open University Press: McGraw Hill Education Rogers, C. (1974) On Becoming a Person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. London: Constable. Talerico, K. (2004) Honoring Resident Autonomy in Long-Term Care Special Considerations. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing, 42, (1) Townsend, P. (2006)‘Policies for the aged in the 21st century: more ‘structured dependency’ or the realization of human rights?’Ageing and Society, 26 (02): 161 – 179 Zubi, Y. and Conolly, P. (2013) Recollected experiences of first hospitalization for acute psychosis among persons diagnosed with schizophrenia in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychiatry, 19 (3), p81-85. Little Red Riding Hood: Angela Carter Little Red Riding Hood: Angela Carter All fairy tales, both old and new that exist today can be said to have a long history that lies beneath them. However, some aspects of the fairy-tale history are somewhat hard to trace because its only the literary forms that can obviously survive. Furthermore, what we do know is that the majority of them have been around and retold for many years. Most, if not all of the famous fairy tales that we know have been adapted into various new versions as products of new challenging ideas around the society in which we live. Bonner states that fairy tales are the usual subjects of adaptation because of their massive appeal to both adults and children worldwide.  [1]  The story Little Red Riding Hood arguably offers a very interesting and challenging tale for enhancements through the application of the chosen contemporary theories in literary criticism that some critics have noticed throughout the years of its existence. Furthermore, in this essay I intend to compare Perraults version o f Little Red Riding Hood with Angela Carters version Company of Wolves. Little Red Riding Hood, Little Red Cap or simply Red Riding Hood is a European fairy-tale about a young innocent girl and a wolf. The tale was first published by Charles Perrault in 1697, which in fact was an adaptation of an older tale still. Thus, Perraults version ever since has been adapted and criticised throughout its history. Zipes holds the genre is relevant to contemporary culture as it holds issues that exist within gender and its society.  [2]   Perraults version was named Little Red Riding Hood. The red hood is seen as a popular symbol in Europe and North America. In the 19th century young daughters of wealthy families were painted in red caps or hoods. Erich Fromm considers the hood to symbolise menstruation and the approaching puberty that lingers upon the young person that wears it.  [3]   Perraults version can be described as a much more descriptive fairytale than many others. It begins with once upon a time  [4]  which the traditional way to start a fairy-tale and also gives the image of timelessness throughout the tale. This relates to the narration and the structure within the fairy-tale of which certainly precedes the middle classs existence within. It portrays the image of the little girl being highly attractive the prettiest creature who was ever seen.  [5]  She is also said to be extremely naÃÆ' ¯ve, the poor child who did not know it was dangerous to stay and hear the wolf talk.  [6]  This shows her innocence and that she isnt aware of the bad happenings in the outside world due to her controlled life at home and within her society, this relates to Trimmers view that both children and childrens tales should be kept away from such happenings within society that are out of the norm.  [7]   In Perraults version of the tale the little girls mother simply instructs her to take some food for her grandmother: never mentioning danger or anything that she should avoid on her journey, thus showing how safe society was perceived throughout the time. Tater argues it resembles a somewhat cautious tale to society, a wakeup call.  [8]   Moreover, the existence of the wolf within the tale gives the audience an image of a villain being portrayed. The wolf is seen as a popular image of danger in fairy tales as it is seen in this and other stories such as The Three Little Pigs. It is an obvious predator that exists within the forest and thus relates to a natural choice for the story rather than witches etc. it can also be portrayed as a metaphor for a sexually predatory man. He is of course the only male gender within the tale thus is portrayed as a powerful and strong figure, seen in the phrase gaffer wolf  [9]  personifying the wolf as the boss within the tale. He shows a strong influence upon the naÃÆ' ¯ve country girl as he persuades her to divert from the safe path in which she was on after foolishly telling him exactly where she was going. This clearly portrays to the audience a somewhat clear contrast between the village and its surrounding in which the girl lives, which is seen as safe and the dangers tha t are withheld in the wide world past what the little girl is used to. Hence, holding a strong morality message throughout the fairytale, warning people to stick to what they know. Tater identifies the tale as a place to work through people thoughts and anxieties about sexuality, gender and sometimes violence.  [10]  When Little Red Riding Hood makes it to the house, she has no sense of anything wrong and states What big arms you have!  [11]  Exclamation can be argued to be the favourite story element for tales, being seen as a story building tool that creates the anticipation and horror for the reader as they know that she isnt talking to her grandmother. Warner considers her initial failure to distinguish the wolf from her grandma as a crucial element within the story, as it creates the tension before the horrific ending of the fairy-tale. Furthermore, critics that exist such as Freud argue that there is evidence of underlying sexual motivations and tensions, evidence of this is the Hungry wolf simply not just eating the poor old grandmother, but he fell upon the good woman.  [12]  Feminist critics portray this as an image of rape and sexual tension. In addition, before he sadly digests the young girl he invites her to bed, come and lie down with me.  [13]  This can be seen as another sexual connotation within the tale, and also a disturbing image for its older audience. Thus being an innocent, clueless little girl she climbs into bed with him. Therefore by disobeying her mothers instructions and talking to strangers Freud dramatically insinuates that this struggle can only lead to her death which is the exact fate of Little Red Riding Hood, as he ate her up too.  [14]  The terrifying ending makes the tale seems more realistic leading to the moral at the end of the story of not talking to strangers and stay ing to paths in life you are familiar with; Bettelheim says it deliberately threatens the child with its anxiety producing ending.  [15]   Moreover, the tale of Little Red Riding Hood has been seen to undergo adaptation in relation to society of the time. Hence, in comparison to Perraults version, The Company of Wolves by Angela Carter. This can be found in her selection of short stories within Bloody Chamber. Throughout the short story Carter retells the famous fairytale in a somewhat gothic light. It is said to convey the completeness of corruption and unconventional ideas of sexuality and an ability to defend one using characteristics which are usually conveyed through a male such as slyness and confidence.  [16]  However, unlike the Perraults version, it takes place in a mountainous country on Christmas Eve in the dead of winter. Thus, in comparison to Perrault there are no flowers or sunshine present for the little girl to get distracted by on her walk to Grandma. Angela spends the first part of the story telling the reader terrifying folk tales of wolfs and werewolves that bombard society and proceed to do ruthless and evil deeds that live to kill. Clearly it adapts with the time within the story when food would be scarce and these creatures are said to lack the ability to listen to reason.  [17]  They are portrayed as forest assassins, grey members of a nightmare.  [18]  They were feared so great that children carried knifes around with them, seen as different to the original Little Red Riding Hood who isnt even warned of the dangers that she could encounter on her journey. In Carters version, the wolves are disguised as men and have to become naked to become a werewolf within the tale, If you spy a naked man in the forest run as if the devil were after you.  [19]  Moreover this can be seen to link to Perraults version, as it holds the notion of sexual tension and desires and involves the wolf as a sexual predator, a symbol of bo th danger and desire. However, Carters version holds a twist within the tale in that the young girl is able to triumph, by adapting her new found sexual desires and power and thus, gives in to notions of somewhat carnal desire, unlike Perraults characters that are seen to be weak and unable to fend for themselves. Furthermore, similar to Perraults version we see Little Red Riding Hood again to be all innocent as she is described as an unbroken egg, a sealed vessel  [20]  and also beautiful with pale skin and dark hair. In addition, as before she is taking food to her sick grandmother; however we see a sense of time and self-defence within this tale as she takes a large knife for her 2 hour trip,  [21]  and we are told its Christmas Eve again portraying that sense of time and place. However, due to her naivety and the way she has been brought up se doesnt think she is in danger as she is too loved to ever feel scared.  [22]  She is portrayed as the most beautiful and young girl in the family thus they want to keep her young. However, the difference between this girl and Perraults version is that she has a notion of menstruation and sexual readiness about her evidence of this is, the childs cheeks are an emblematic and scarlet white.  [23]  This portrays the young girl as being o n the verge of puberty and menstruation, thus adding to the idea of her vulnerability. This is further shown when she bumps into the wolf in the forest who is in fact a hunter and finds him immediately attractive. Compared to Perraults version of events Little Red Riding Hood makes friends with this stranger and foolishly lets him carry her basket which has her knife in. After a long walk, and when she has told him were she is going, he bribes her with a kiss for the winner of whoever gets to grandmas house first. Liking this idea she agrees and allows him to leave with her basket, this gives the image of bargaining with the notion of seduction. Unlike before little red riding hood shows her adolescence and sticks to the path shes on. However, she walks slowly to ensure he gets his kiss again showing her sexuality and desires. The wolf arrives at the grandmothers house as a completely different person that we have just witnessed before; he is chewing meat of his catch like a savage. Carter then links in the sexual connotations as he strips naked revealing a naked, hairy, lie covered body,  [24]  and his nipples that are as red as poison fruit.  [25]  He then devours her. However disgusting this image, it is portrayed as somewhat attractive and sexually arousing. The grandmother within the tale is old and feeble as in Perraults version also, however, she lives alone with her dog and bible. In the past she has lived her life as a devoted Christian and wife. She throws the bible at him showing some self-defence which the original grandmother doesnt even attempt in Perraults version, sadly though this isnt enough to help her against the wolf that is upon her. He then disposes all evidence and waits for the girl to arrive. Unlike the little girl in Perraults version upon her arrival in Carters short story she immediately realises that something isnt right and senses danger in grandmothers house, fear does her no good so she refuses to be afraid.  [26]  When she arrives there are uses of the same rhymes within the Perraults version, thus showing connections within the adapted version. However, in this tale the girl sees the wolf as strange, unknown creature and thus gives him his owed kiss and starts to undress herself. It is argued by Bettelheim that we can see Little Red Riding Hood wear her desires and sexuality literally on her sleeve. This is seen through her cape, as it portrays a sexual readiness and again symbolising menstruation and blood that she will shed when she loses her virginity. She shows a somewhat sexual power that allows her to intoxicate the lustful creature, small breasts gleamed as if snow had entered the room.  [27]  Evidently, the seduction gets reversed and we see the p ower shift as the girl becomes the sexual creature within the tale. This can be seen as the reason why grandma and the original little red riding hood didnt survive, she was old and lacked wit and tactfulness, Little Red Riding hood refuses to be weak and vulnerable as she survives and sacrifices her virginity to save her life, showing that self-defence that the original girl didnt have. She comments on the wolves teeth as in the original but when the wolf says all the better to eat you with  [28]  instead of screaming and having her fate decided, she laughs and says im nobodys meat  [29]  , Bacchilega interprets this meaning as acting out sexual desires offering her flesh not meat, hence sacrificing her body to him sexually then burning her cape in order to become one of the werewolves herself and adapt to his kind. The cottage is then surrounded by wolves howling a marriage song and the girl engages in a marriage ceremony conducted by the choir. Thus feminists state that s he does not call upon god or scream or get eaten. She freely exercises her own sexual power, trusting her own nature.  [30]  This then leads to sleeps in grannys bed, between the paws of her tender wolf.  [31]  A disturbing image towards its audience. It is also interesting to see that Carter uses a werewolf instead of a wolf that is used in Perraults version. Timmer states that this produces a moral message to its audience, whether that be children or adults that people should not judge others, people arent always what they seem.  [32]  Thus using a half wolf half human villain within the story allows us to identify with the wolf as people and maybe realise that we all have a little beast in us at some point. In conclusion, one of the many adapted versions of Perraults implies that sexuality is not something within our society that should be something we loath, fear or runaway from and a bad end, which we see within the Perraults version comes only form those in servile situations. Through Carter, we see the young girl take the power into her own hands and use it without fear or shame in order to survive unscathed unlike Perraults version, what ends in tragedy from both the grandma and Little Red Riding Hood. However, both versions are heavily criticised by many, especially feminists as they say it is full on female liberation that implies the view to the reader that nothing else in the world will save you against such horror and the only way to survive is through temptation, desire and the ability to fight fire with fire.

Differences Between Micro And Macro Economics Economics Essay

Differences Between Micro And Macro Economics Economics Essay Each NCC Education assessed assignment submitted by you must have this statement attached to the assignment as the cover page or it will not be accepted for marking. Please ensure that this statement is either firmly attached to the cover of the assignment or electronically inserted into the front of the assignment. Student declaration I have read and understood NCC Educations Policy on Academic Dishonesty and Plagiarism. I can confirm the following details: Student ID/Registration number: 4-16-03-09-010 Name: Mahabuba Rahman Centre Name: Daffodil Institute of IT Module Name: Economics Module Leader: Mr. Abdullah-Hil-Muntakim Number of words: I confirm that this is my own work and that I have not plagiarized any part of it. I have also noted the assessment criteria and pass mark for assignments. Due Date: 18th February, 2010 Students Signature: Mahabuba Rahman Date of Submission: 17th February, 2010 Acknowledgement At last, an arduous journey has come to an end. It was a great experience to make an assignment on economics. For the successful completion of the different areas in the process of writing the assignment, many people extended their helping hands and their practical thoughts as well. Without all those helps from different fields, it would not be possible to ease the entire process and make smooth works. In the first place, I want to express my heartiest gratitude to our respected teacher and mentor, Mr. Abdullah-Hil-Muntakim, for guiding us with necessary advices, whenever needed. This assignment is assigned by NCC Education UK. I would also like to thank NCC Education UK for providing me such an enjoyable assignment like this. Mahabuba Rahman Table of Content Task1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 01 to 05 Task2à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 06 to 14 Task3à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 15 to 17 Task4à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 18 to 21 Task5à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 22 to 24 References Bibliographyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 25 Task-1 What is Economics? The Economists Dictionary of Economics defines economics as The study of the production, distribution and consumption of wealth in human society. Another definition of the subject comes from the economist Lionel Robbins, who said in 1935 that  [1]   Economics is a social science that studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses. That is, economics is the study of the trade-offs involved when choosing between alternate sets of decisions. According to Adam Smith, Economics is a study of an enquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations. J. S. Mills says, Economics is a study of the practical science of the production and distribution of wealth Generally, Economics is a study of how people allocate their limited resources such as land, labor and capital to provide for their unlimited wants.  [2]   The basic economic problem is about scarcity and choice since there are only a limited amount of resources available to produce the unlimited amount of goods and services we desire. In an economy, people have unlimited desire for goods and services i.e. unlimited wants, but the resources in the world are limited and so we cannot satisfy all our wants and are forced to choose as to which goods to produce. Therefore, scarcity and choice or limited resources and unlimited wants sum up the basic economic problem. We can summarize this idea into the following figure:  [3]   Limited Resources Can be used to produce Limited amount of goods services. Which then satisfy Unlimited amount of people wants FIG: Limited Resources and Unlimited wants As we are faced with the problem of scarcity, there are 3 important economic decisions to be considered. What goods and services to be produced and what quantity i.e. how much to be produced? How or by what method goods and services should be produced? For who are goods and services to be produced i.e. who are to enjoy the goods and services produced? Opportunity Cost: Opportunity cost is the cost we pay when we give up something to get something else. There can be many alternatives that we give up to get something else, but the opportunity cost of a decision is the most desirable alternative we give up to get what we want  [4]  . Opportunity cost of satisfying a want is the next best alternative that has to be forgone (i.e. the cost of giving up something in order to obtain something else). As for example, a person has $5 and he can spend on chocolate or chewing gum or a combination of both. Price of a bar of chocolate = $0.50 Price of a bar of chewing gum =$0.20 Figure 1 Opportunity Cost There are 6 attainable combinations available to him using all his money. Assuming that he is consuming 6 bars of chocolate and 10 bars of chewing gum, the opportunity cost of the 8th bar of chocolate is what he must give up in order to get that 8th bar, which in this case is 5 bars of chewing gum. The line on the above diagram shows a constant opportunity cost of consuming 2 additional bars of chocolate is 5 bars of chewing gum. Opportunity Cost is represented by the slope of that line.  [5]   In simple terms, opportunity cost of an action A is the next best alternative action B that you give up. For example, if you spend one hour in reading then you are actually giving up one hour of fishing which is say, your next best alternative use of that one hour.  [6]   Reading for an hour means giving up So opportunity cost of reading is fishing. Differences between Micro and Macro Economics Macro- and microeconomics, and their wide array of underlying concepts,  have been the subject of a great deal of writings. The field of study is vast; here is a brief summary of what each covers: a) .Microeconomics is the study of decisions that people and businesses make regarding the allocation of resources and prices of goods and services. This means also taking into account taxes and regulations created by governments. Microeconomics  focuses on  supply and demand and other forces that determine the price levels seen in the economy. For example, microeconomics would look at how a specific company could maximize its production and capacity so  it could lower  prices and better compete in its industry.  [7]   On the other hand,  Macroeconomics is the field of economics that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole and not just on specific companies, but entire industries and economies. This looks at economy-wide phenomena, such as  Gross National Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. For example, macroeconomics would look at how an increase/decrease in net exports would affect a nations  capital account or how GDP would be affected by unemployment rate. b) Microeconomics deals with the economics of the firm, examples are Consumers Behavior and Production Theory.  [8]   Macroeconomics deals with the aggregates, examples are National Income Accounts and Inflation. c) Microeconomics (small economics), which examines the economic behavior of agents (including individuals and firms) Microeconomics looks at interactions through individual markets, given scarcity and government regulation. A given market might be for a product, say fresh corn, or the services of a factor of production. The theory considers aggregates of quantity demanded by buyers and quantity supplied by sellers at each possible price per unit. It weaves these together to describe how the market may reach equilibrium as to price and quantity or respond to market changes over time.  [9]   Macroeconomics (big economics), addressing issues of unemployment, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy for an entire economy. Macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions top down, that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory. Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and sub aggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. It also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy. TASK-02 Demand Curve In economics, the demand curve is the graph depicting the relationship between the price of a certain commodity, and the amount of it that consumers are willing and able to purchase at that given price. It is a graphic representation of a demand schedule.  [10]   The demand curve is a graphical representation of the data in the demand schedule. It slopes downwards from left to right indicating that the quantity demanded increases as the price falls.  [11]   The table below is the demand schedule that lists the quantity of a commodity that would be demanded at various price levels with a given income. It shows the relationship between quantity, demanded and price. Price Quantity Demanded 50 0 40 1 30 2 20 3 10 4 Quantity Price 50 40 30 20 10 Fig: Individual demand curve 1 2 3 4 5 Demand curves are used to estimate behaviors in competitive markets, and are often combined with supply curves to estimate the equilibrium price (the price at which sellers together are willing to sell the same amount as buyers together are willing to buy, also known as market clearing price) and the equilibrium quantity (the amount of that good or service that will be produced and bought without surplus/excess supply or shortage/excess demand) of that market An example of a demand curve In the diagram, the line labeled D shows a plot of that demand curve, say for blue jean prices and number of pairs demanded. Prices are P (in $) and quantity is Q (in number of product units) on this diagram. At a price of $75 (vertical axis), two pairs are demanded (Q on horizontal axis). As the price P on vertical axis is lowered from $75 to $50, the quantity demanded Q is increased from two pairs to three pairs of blue jeans.  [12]   Market Demand Curve:  [13]   The market demand curve is the curve related to the demand of the commodity demanded by the group of people to that different price. How a market demand curve is derived: The market demand curve is the horizontal summation of individual demand curves. Individual demand is the key initiator of the production process. It is independent of all factors other than the preference curve, prices and income constraint. The law of demand: lower the price, greater amount demanded, i.e. demand curve is negatively sloped Fig: Market Demand Curve Market Demand Schedule and Curve:  [14]   Market demand is the total demand of all the consumers for particular goods. It can also be derived by the lateral summation of the consumers demand curves. Price($) Market Demanded Buyer A Buyer B 80 0 2 2 70 0 3 3 60 0 4 4 50 1 5 6 40 2 6 8 30 3 7 10 20 4 8 12 10 5 9 14 The following demand curve is drawn on the basis of the data for buyer A, given in the above table. P 80 0 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Q Fig: As Demand Curve The following demand curve is drawn on the basis of the data for buyer B, given in the above table. In this graph the price values are set up in the X-axis and the quantity values are set up along Y-axis. P 2 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Q Fig: Bs Demand Curve Following is the Fig. of a market Demand Curve:  [15]   P 80 (0+2) =2 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 (5+9) =14 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 Q Fig: Market Demand Curve The market demand curve is a graph drawn by the combination of the above demand curves. The market demand value is calculated from the demand of buyer A and buyer B. The market demand values are aggregated values for the values of buyer A and buyer B. We have calculated the values in the above table. In this graph the price values are set up along X-axis and the quantity values are set up along Y-axis. A Firms Output Decision in the short-run: The short run is a period of time for which two conditions hold: The firm is operating under a fixed scale (fixed factor) of production, and Firms can neither enter nor exit an industry. In the short run, all firms have costs that they must bear regardless of their output. These kinds of costs are called fixed costs. Costs in the Short Run:  [16]   Fixed cost is any cost that does not depend on the firms level of output. These costs are incurred even if the firm is producing nothing. Variable cost is a cost that depends on the level of production chosen. TC= TFC+ TVC Total Cost = Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost. 250 1,000 4 200 1,000 5 333 1,000 3 (2) TFC (3) AFC (TFC/q) 500 1,000 2 1,000 1,000 1 $ â‚ ¬Ã‚ ­Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ­ â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¤Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ±Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ° 0 (1) q AFC falls as output rises; a phenomenon sometimes called spreading overhead  [17]   In the above figure, when the firms production is 0 it has to occur $1000 as a fixed cost. And at the production level of 3 or 5 units, the firm has to occur the same amount of fixed cost. So with increase in the number of production units the average fixed cost is reduced. Output Decisions: In the short run, a competitive firm faces a demand curve that is simply a horizontal line at the market equilibrium price.  [18]   A Firms Output Decision in the long-run: Firms expand in the long-run when increasing returns to scale are available.  [19]   Output Decisions: In a decreasing cost industry, costs decline as a result of industry expansion, and the LRIS is downward-sloping.  [20]   In an increasing cost industry, costs rise as a result of industry expansion, and the LRIS is upward-sloping.  [21]   TASK-3 How an equilibrium price and equilibrium  quantity is achieved? We often show the market equilibrium through a supply and demand diagram shown below. This figure is a combination of the supply curve and the demand curve. Combining two graphs is possible because they are drawn with exactly the same units on each axis. We find the market equilibrium by looking for the price at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. The market equilibrium price comes at the intersection of the supply and demand curve, at the intersecting point. At a particular price, at the intersecting point, firms willingly supply what consumers willingly demanded. When the price is too low, less the price of the intersecting point, quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied.  [22]   Figure 1: Market Equilibrium Comes at the Intersection of Supply and Demand Curves A competitive market is in equilibrium if, at the current market price, the number of units that consumers wish to buy equals the number of units producers wished to sell. In other words, market equilibrium occurs where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. At the equilibrium price, P*, the equilibrium quantity is Qd=Qs=Q*, where Qd is the quantity demanded and Qs is the quantity supplied. The asterisk indicates equilibrium. In a competitive market, this equilibrium is found at the intersection of the supply and demand curves. There are no storage or surpluses at the equilibrium price. The effects of excess supply on market equilibrium: Market equilibrium is the situation, where at a certain price level, the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded of a particular commodity are equal. Thus, the market can clear, with no excess supply or demand, and there is no tendency to change in either price or quantity. The equilibrium price and quantity will be changed if there is a shift in either or both of the supply or demand curve. Shifts in the supply and demand curves are caused by changes in conditions behind supply and demand not price changes. An increase or decrease in supply will also affect the equilibrium position. An increase in supply shifts the supply curve to the right, thus lowering equilibrium price while raising equilibrium quantity. A decrease in supply, which shifts the supply curve to the left, however, raises equilibrium price and lowers equilibrium quantity. In Figure 2, the quantity supplied at price 0P1 (0Q2) exceeds the quantity demanded. Thus, we have a situation of excess supply or a glut in the market. In order to remove excess supply, sellers will offer to sell at a lower price. The fall in the price results in an expansion of demand, and a contraction in supply (movement along the curves towards the equilibrium point). This will continue to occur as long as there is excess supply, until we reach the intersection of supply and demand, where at price 0Pe, the market clears, that is, the quantity supplied and demanded is equal.  [23]   Figure 1: Excess supply situation The effects of  Ã‚   excess  demand on market equilibrium: Diagrammatically, market equilibrium occurs where the demand and supply curves intersect, at the point where the quantity demanded is exactly equal to the quantity demanded. Let us first consider the case where there is excess demand, where the current price is below that of equilibrium, as shown in Figure 2:  [24]   Figure 2: Excess demand situation Figure 2 reveals that at price 0P1, the quantity demanded (0Q2) exceeds the quantity supplied (0Q1). Competition among buyers for the limited quantity of goods available means that consumers will start bidding up the price. The rise in the price results in an expansion in supply and a contraction in demand (movement along the curves towards the equilibrium point). This will continue to occur as long as there is excess demand. Eventually, we will reach the intersection of the supply and demand curves, where at price 0Pe, the quantity supplied 0Qe exactly equals the quantity demanded by consumers. In conclusion, the market forces of supply and demand interact to bring about the equilibrium price, clearing the market of excess demand or supply. In this way, it is said that the market mechanism achieves consistency between the plans and outcomes for consumers and producers without explicit coordination. Task-4 Perfect Competition: In neoclassical economics and microeconomics, perfect competition describes a market in which there are many small firms, all producing homogeneous goods. In the short term, such markets are productively inefficient as output will not occur where marginal cost is equal to average cost, but allocatively efficient, as output under perfect competition will always occur where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue, and therefore where marginal cost equals average revenue. However, in the long term, such markets are both allocatively and productively efficient. In general a perfectly competitive market is characterized by the fact that no single firm has influence over the price of the product it sells. Because the conditions for perfect competition are very strict, there are few perfectly competitive markets.  [25]   A perfectly competitive market may have several distinguishing characteristics, including: Infinite Buyers/Infinite Sellers Infinite consumers with the willingness and ability to buy the product at a certain price, Infinite producers with the willingness and ability to supply the product at a certain price. Zero Entry/Exit Barriers It is relatively easy to enter or exit as a business in a perfectly competitive market. Perfect Information Prices and quality of products are assumed to be known to all consumers and producers Transactions are Costless Buyers and sellers incur no costs in making an exchange. Firms Aim to Maximize Profits Firms aim to sell where marginal costs meet marginal revenue, where they generate the most profit. Homogeneous Products The characteristics of any given market good or service do not vary across suppliers Characteristics of Perfect Competition:  [26]   Large number of sellers. Only homogeneous products are for sale. Firms are allowed to enter and exit freely. Perfect mobility of factors. Perfect knowledge of all market situations. Absents of transport cost. The Fig of Perfect Competition is given below:  [27]   Oligopoly: In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which a market or industry is dominated by a small number of sellers (oligopolists). The word is derived, by analogy with monopoly, from the Greek oligoi few and poleein to sell. Because there are few sellers, each oligopolistic is likely to be aware of the actions of the others. The decisions of one firm influence, and are influenced by, the decisions of other firms. Strategic planning by oligopolistic needs to be taken into account as a likely response of the other market participants.  [28]   This causes oligopolistic markets and industries to be a high risk for collusion.  [29]   Oligopoly is a common market form. As a quantitative description of oligopoly, the four-firm concentration ratio is often utilized. This measure expresses the market share of the four largest firms in an industry as a percentage.  [30]   In short, Oligopoly is a situation in which a particular market is controlled by a small group of firms.  [31]   In other words, Oligopoly is the state of limited competition between few producers or sellers. Characteristics of Oligopoly:  [32]   Only few companies in the market. Sell either homogenous products or differentiated products. Barriers of entry exist. Mutual interdependence in decision-making Non-price competition exists. An oligopoly is much like a  monopoly, in which  only one company exerts control over most of a market. In an oligopoly, there are at least two firms controlling the market. Kinked demand curve is a demand curve made up of two parts; its suggested oligopolistic follow each reductions, but not price rises. Kinked demand curve can be used to explain why prices in oligopolistic markets are often rigid or stable for relatively long periods of time. Price Rigidity is a condition where one follows a decrease in price but not an increase in price. This is due to the ability of other firms to match prices with it and it often leads to a kinked demand curve.  [33]   Task-5 Keynesian economics: Keynesian economics (also called Keynesianism Theory) is a macroeconomic theory based on the ideas of 20th-century British economist John Maynard Keynes. Keynesian economics argues that private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes and therefore advocates active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle. The theories forming the basis of Keynesian economics were first presented in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936; the interpretations of Keynes are contentious, and several schools of thought claim his legacy.  [34]   Keynesian economics advocates a mixed economy-predominantly private sector, but with a large role of government and public sector-and served as the economic model during the latter part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war Golden Age of Capitalism, 1945-1973, though it lost some influence following the stagflation of the 1970s. As a middle way between laissez-faire capitalism and socialism, it has been and continues to be attacked from both the right and the left. The advent of the global financial crisis in 2007 has caused resurgence in Keynesian thought. Keynesian economics has provided the theoretical underpinning for the plans of President Barack Obama, Prime Minister Gordon Brown and other global leaders to rescue the world economy. Keynesian economics An approach to economic theory and policy derived from the influential writings of the English economist John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946). Prior to Keynes, governments tended to be guided by the argument of laissez-faire economics that an unregulated economy would tend to move towards full employment, and thence equilibrium. Keynes argued (in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936) that equilibrium could be established before that point was reached, and therefore that governments wishing to achieve full employment had actively to intervene in the economy by stimulating aggregate demand; and, conversely, that if full employment resulted in inflation they should act to reduce aggregate demand, in both cases by using the devices of tax (fiscal) policy, government expenditure, and monetary policy (changes in interest rates and the supply of credit). Keynesianism, though forming the basis of economic policy in most Western societies for three decades after the Second World War, was itself challenged by the appearance of stagflation (simultaneous recession and inflation) in the 1970s, and consequently by the economic theories of monetarism. The dispute between these two approaches currently forms the major axis of disagreement within modern economics.  [35]   Monetarist Economics: The Monetarists theory is a development of earlier Classical theoretical work. Their main contribution is in updating many of these ideas to fit them into a more modern context.