Study Of Bureaucratic Leadership Management Essay

Study Of bureaucratic Leadership Management undertakeThe textbook describes the Bureaucratic style of leadership as a executive program who manages by the book and is seen by his/her employees as a police officer. This pillowcase of leadership style is great for workplaces where the employees curb no chance of courtesy when it comes to their notes such as accounting and law related work. The term bureaucratism can be traced to eighteenth-century French literature. The early usage referred to an official workplace (bureau) in which individual activities were r come forthinely determined by explicit rules and regulations. As modern systems of management, bureaucracies ar designed to rationally coordinate the duties and responsibilities of officials and employees or system of ruless. The pic of official duties and responsibilities by means of word formal rules and programs or activity, is intended to depose and constrain the otherwise private, idiosyncratic, and unlikely p ersonal interests an d actions of individuals. Bureaucratic systems of constitution are designed to ensure that the activities of individuals rationally contribute to the goals and interests of the organizations at bottom which they work. bureaucracy is the world of explicitly formulated goals, rules, procedures, and givens that define and regulate the place of its members, a world of specialization and expertise, with the roles of individuals minutely specified and differentiated. Its employees are organized by purpose, process, clientele, or place, It is a world that prices consistency, predictability, stability, and efficiency to a greater extent than creativity and principle. Roles and duties are prescribed less by superiors than by tradition, formal examinations, and technical qualifications. Careers and job security are protected by tenure, pensions, union rules, professional standards and ingathering procedures2 Some other important characteristics of bureaucracies are the hierarchical ordering of authorization relations, limiting the areas of command and responsibility for subordinate as well and superordinate personnel, the recruitment and promotion of individuals on the basis of technical expertise and competence, a clearly defined division of labor with specialization and training unavoidable for assigned tasks, a structuring of the work environment to ensure continuous and bounteous time employment, and the fulfillment of individual career expectations within the organization, the impersonality and impartiality of alliance among organization members and with those outside the organization, the importance of official record in the form of written documents.I feel that when talking about Bureaucratic leadership, it is more like when talking about a computers programing. A computer follows a protocol to do whatever we compulsion it to do, the same way a Bureaucratic leader looks to the rules, the protocol, to see what needs to be done and how it is to be done. This text explains that bureaucracy discourages the kind of power that is generated by the tapping of motivational bases among employees and the marshaling of personal- as opposed to organizational- resourcesAnd Bureaucracy, far from directing social change or military service as a factor in historical causation, consciously or not helps buttress the status quo.This is majorly significant in understanding Bureaucratic leadership beca consumption most people only know that bureaucratic leadership is about following the rules but they dont understand that there is an underlying need from these bureaucratic leaders to follow the rules and that their minds are stuck in the feeling of if its not broken, why fix it as well as knowing that peradventure not following the rules may result in problems for them that would not apply been generated had they followed to rules. Bureaucratic authority is formal power that has been vested in persons by uprightness of their ho lding certain positions, that is, vested in the positions themselves. Such authority may be used to influence subordinates under a system of rewards and penalties, the carrot and disturb method usually, and this authority from ruler to subordinate is accepted because the subordinate is make to respect its credibility and legitimacy. Basically conformity is the basis of bureaucratic leadership and bureaucracy in general.The knowledge that we must follow the rules, no social occasion what, to get ahead is the really thing that makes us feel that no matter how much or how little work we do our efforts provide not be recognized. This leads to conformity and feeds into the status quo by hammering into our heads that the very act of trying to change the way things are, the workplace, society and such, may and will end in punishment either by literally removing us from the environment, termination, or by brainwashing us to think that our actions are wrong, rehabilitation. The historic al trend towards increasing bureaucratization through modern Western Europe, highlighted by the changing structure of military organizations, is documented in the works of Karl Marx, however, the study of bureaucratic structure and process as the prominent sociological topic is found on the intellectual legacy of Max Weber.Max Weber spy that bureaucratic authority was not the rule but the exception. Even in large political systems such as those in ancient empires, rulers carried out key measures through their inner circles or personal trustees, table companions, and servants of the court. In certain cultures, unlike the ones just discussed, bureaucracies were the dominant basis of the organization, empires such as the Romans and China during recent history.To Weber, power represents the ability or capacity to countenance other people behave in accordance with certain orders or dictates, no matter if those affected care that its application is rightful or legitimate. Authority fo r Weber, represents the legitimation of this power by those whose activities are ordered in such way that the application of power and its impact is deemed to be congruous and acceptable. At the root or bureaucratic conflicts, lies some kind of peel and prestige. This struggle pervades the bureaucracy because it engages persons who tap one anothers motivational and need bases and who have various power resources that they can employ or mobilize in this process.Within the bureaucratic organization, rules serve to direct individual actions in ways that promote the technical efficiency of the organization. The distinctive feature of bureaucratic organization is not the use or rules per Se but, rather, the type of rules employed within a organization as well as the justification for the use of the rules. Rules have been, and continue to be, used in all forms of administration to take care individual actions, whether it is by following the rules verbatim or by in the main interpreti ng them.

The World Channel Tunnel Engineering Projects Construction Essay

The World parentage Tunnel Engineering Projects complex body part EssayThe melody Tunnel ( cut le cut into sous la Manche), wide recognized as one of the worlds grea sample civil engineering projects, is a 50.5km underwater rail tunnel connecting Folkestone, Kent in the UK with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais in France under the slope hold. Even though it began construction in 1988 and was opened in 1994, the melodic theme to down a cross-channel tunnel was first mooted more than 200 historic period ago but did not materialize due to political, national warranter and make up considerations. However, with the tremendous increase in relations growth, better and option means of communication, convenience and speed was necessary and hence the need for an election transport route was clearly evident. The need for such tunnel was go on compounded with Britain joining the European Community and the cross-channel traffic doubling in the last 20 forms (leading to the project), reflec ting improved trading in the midst of the Britain and lie down of Europe. The Channel Tunnel would also be able to provide an alternate competitive link between the transportation systems of the UK and France, providing both speed and reliableness to freight deliveries. With the strong endorsement from the governments of both sovereigns, the decision to build the Channel Tunnel was thus do. In April 1985, the British and French governments issued a lump invitation to potential tenderers for the fixed Channel link and eventually the contract was awarded to the kitty Channel Tunnel Group Limited- France Manche S.A. (CTG/FM) (later renamed Eurotunnel).Figure 1 Project memorial tabletThe Channel Tunnel, with the governments intention that it be privately funded and there would not be any government assistance or undertaking, was a build-own-operate-transfer (B-O-O-T) project with a concession. The project organization is shown in Figure 1. In this contract arrangement, Eurotunnel w ould be the owner cum operator, which was being funded by the banks and shareholders. The governments of UK and France were represented by the Inter-Governmental foreign mission (IGC), to which the Safety Authority and the Maitre dOeuvre (an independent technical auditor) would report to. The IGC would then bemuse final engineering and safety decisions. TML (essentially split from CTG/FM so as to separate the roles of owner/operator and contractor) consisted master(prenominal)ly of five British contractors (Translink adjunction Venture) and five French contractors (G.I.E Transmanche Construction) and would carry out the construction works for the Channel Tunnel in a function and build contract. Upon completion of the project, the British and French governments would award Eurotunnel a 55 (which was later revised to 65) year operating concession to repay the banks and shareholders. The Contract was officially signed on 13 August 1986 and the fixed rail was to be fully licenced in 1993. The services offered by the Channel Tunnel include the Eurotunnel doll (a shuttle service for vehicles), Eurostar passenger trains and freight delivery trains.TMLs contract was to design, build, and test and commission the fixed rail tunnel. The Channel Tunnel (Figure 2) was intentional to have three concrete-lined bores approximately 50km long, with 37.9km undersea and the rest under land at either ends of the face (Cheriton near Folkstone) and French (Pas-de-Calais village of Frethun) landmarkinals (Figure 3). Two of the course tunnels were designed to have an internal diameter of 7.6m fleck the third was a 4.8m service tunnel representning midway between the two and affiliated to them via 3.3m diameter cross passages at 375m intervals. 2m diameter piston relief ducts connecting the main(prenominal) tunnels at 250m spacing were built to prevent the accumulation of differential halo pressings and aerodynamic resistance. To facilitate operations and maintenance, four crossover caverns were built between the two terminals to allow trains to cross between the path tunnels. Two crossovers were pose close to the terminals while the other two were under the seabed, efficaciously dividing the tunnel into three approximately equal lengths. Figure 4 below shows the main phases of the project.Two separate rail tunnels were chosen instead of a star large twin-track rail tunnel because this could minimize construction risk while at the same time enhance operations, maintenance and safety. The diameters were finalized after design analysis, development and optimization studies, taking into consideration the operation and support, speed and embody of construction. The service tunnel provided access between the running tunnels during normal and sine qua non situations and was equipped with a guided transport system. It was also where the water and pumping mains run and functioned as a fresh air supply duct to the tunnels in normal working condition . In addition, the service tunnel would function as a lead tunnel during construction which allowed the workers and engineers to assess and ascertain the unmapped ground conditions before advancing the main tunnels.Basing on the existing geotechnical investigations, previous(prenominal) tunneling expeditions and two additional geotechnical and geophysical surveys carried out by TML on the English Channel along the proposed tunnel line, it was ascertained that there was a intelligible sub-unit of the Lower Chalk layer known as the Chalk Marl running continuously between the two terminals. Chalk Marl, made up of change bands of marly chalk and limestone, was found to be the best tunneling medium as it was essentially impermeable (due to its high clay content) and provided good short term stability under excavation, thus minimizing the design of supports required (Figure 5). It was designed to be bored in the bottom 15m of the Chalk Marl layer to minimize the doorway of water from the fractures and joints, but above the Gault clay which is susceptible to swelling when wet, idealistic high stresses on the tunnel liner. The chalk marl strata dipped gently at less than 5o with smaller displacements of less than 2m due to faulting towards the UK side whereas the strata dipped badly towards the French side (up to 20o) with much larger displacements of up to 15m (Gueterbock, 1992). Chalk at the French side was also harder, more brittle and fractured. This thus guide to the use of different tunneling methods on the English and French sides.The seaward and landwards bores for all three tunnels on the UK side began at Shakespeare Cliff. Construction traffic would enter the tunnel via a new inclined access (Adit A2) at the Lower Shakespeare site, while worker access was built via a chisel driven to the tunnel level from the Upper Shakespeare site (Gueterbock, 1992). Due to the profligate construction time required and the relatively dry chalk marl at the UK sid e, it was assessed that the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was most suitable for the UK tunnels. One suffer of the NATM was the interlinking of design, construction method, sequence and plant and the success of this method depended on the continuous integration of these elements by the tunneling engineers. Six TBMs were used to drive the UK tunnels spanning a match distance of 84km. The TBMs were operated on an open-face panache with a await excavating naval division and a rear gripper unit which acted as a temporary strand point when the great head drove forward at 1.5m increments (Anderson Roskrow, 1994). digging of the tunnel and erection of the tunnel claddings were carried out concurrently. Depending on ground conditions, the weightiness of the linings ranged between 380mm and 500mm. Expanded concrete lining was used for the UK tunnels where the unbolted lining was expanded against the excavated ground. Pads on the back of the lining allowed the formation of an annulus to be filled with grout to prevent water ingress (Byrd, 1996). Each 1.5m lining ring was made up of eight precast concrete segments with a key segment. Cast iron lining segments were only used in poor ground conditions.Over at the other side, the tunnel drives started at the shaft in Sangatte in France. Due to the highly fissured ground resulting in very wet conditions on the French side, a different oddball of TBM known as the Earth Pressure Balance Machine was used. The TBMs were designed to operate both in open and closed modes. Close mode is characterized by the sealing off of the machine from the spoil around it and the cutting head, thus keeping pressure on the dirt in front as it excavated and allowing the machine to work in the dry as the pressure in the machine was higher than the outside. The arrangement of seals on the TBM allowed it to withstand up to 10 atmospheric pressures. When the TBMs reached dryer and more favourable grounds, they could then vanquish to open mode. While precast sections were also used on the French side, the materials used were different owing to the different soil conditions neoprene and grout sure bolted linings made of cast-iron and high strength concrete (Anderson Roskrow, 1994). The French tunnels were made of six 1.4 to 1.6m wide segments plus a key segment. A total of 5 TBMs were employed on the French side, and the bores from the UK and France were to finally concern in the middle of the English Channel in the tunnel breakthrough phase.The Channel Tunnel project was huge by any standard, with a number of key factors that could potentially impact the parties involved bi-nationality, private funding (thereby effectively transferring most of the financial risks to the contractors), schedule and cost. To stay attractive to investors and banks alike, the project had to meet the following priorities minimum risk of cost overrun, minimum operating cost and maximum traffic revenue. It was recognized, from the o utset, that the main challenge of the project was to resolve the logistical support associated with large scale tunneling and the fast-track nature of this project. The management, finance and technical challenges related to this project would be explored in the subsequent paragraphs.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Lucid Dreaming Therapy

Post-Traumatic Stress cark and pel gauze-like ambition TherapyPost-Traumatic Stress unhealthiness ( government agencyhurttic stress disorder) has seen a steep incline in recent years, affecting over 1 adult in every 12 (National Comorbidity Survey reproductive memory NCS-R, 2001-2003). Per the Ameri tummy Psychiatric Association, it is defined as a psychiatric derangement that can occur in people who take away regardd or witnessed a traumatic event such(prenominal) as a inborn disaster, a serious accident, a terrorist act, war/combat, rape or both(prenominal)(prenominal) other(a)wise violent personal usurpation (APA, 2015). An adult diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder can arguably obtain normality in behaviour and mindset through respective(a) forms of psychotherapy and medication, and resultantly recover from the disorder. plain stargaze Therapy (LDT) is becoming an increasingly bighearted influence in the format of ikon therapy, which begs the question , to what extent can Lucid woolgather be hard-hitting in treating the identifying characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder?Exposure Therapy is a format of behavioural therapy in which a affected role re-enters the setting in which they experience the initial trauma, whether it be virtuall(a)y, imaginatively or physically, and attempts to confront the worrisome itemor (APA, Division 12). Exposure therapy is advertised as a intercession comp angiotensin converting enzyment range for several problems, including Phobias, Social Anxiety Disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. However, the deflection with the latter is the inability to physically recreate the event in the train manner that it originally occurred, with all smells, sounds and emotions originally experienced. The goal of Lucid Dreaming Therapy (LDT) is to reduce the detriment ca utilise as a result of posttraumatic stress disorder in order to en equal to(p) a deplor equal adult to best government agenc y independently and successfully in various environments (Green McCreery, 1994 Halliday, 1988 LaBerge, 1985 LaBerge Rheingold, 1990 Tholey, 1988). LDT is most successful in combination with ahead of time intervention. Treatment closely later a traumatic event allows for a greater possibility to alleviate ache from set up such as nightm argons and depression.Characterizing Description of posttraumatic stress disorderposttraumatic stress disorder is classified as a trauma and stressor related psychiatric disorder, largely due to quad common ingests that appear from angiotensin-converting enzyme-third months to years after the occurrence of a traumatic event. These characteristics ar intrusive memories, stave offance, negatively charged changes in sight and mood, and changes in emotional reactions (DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5). The diagnostic features of PTSD best described in the diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5. At least eight of the criteria moldine ss be present for the diagnosis of PTSD. Of these eight, additional requirements exist in apiece argona. Exposure to death, violence or speck is virtuoso delineate feature of PTSD, referred to as stressor. This can be marked through direct exposure, witnessing the trauma, encyclopedism that a relative or close friend was exposed to a trauma or Indirect exposure to aversive details of the trauma. A patient role must have iodin of these social criterions to be marked as a patient of PTSD.Symptoms of intrusion are other psychiatric hospital of PTSD. A persistently recurring format of reliving the trauma is characteristic. such signals include recurrent or involuntary and intrusive memories, traumatic incubuss, dissociative reactions such as flashbacks ranging on a continuum of brief episodes to loss of consciousness, intemperate or prolonged excruciation after exposure to traumatic reminded, as thoroughly as marked physiological reactivity after exposure to trauma-relate d stimuli.Persistent effortful avoidance of distressing trauma-related stimuli after the event is a nonher core to PTSD. This can be marked through trauma-related thoughts or feelings in addition or replacement to trauma-related external reminders (e.g. people, places, objects or activities).Negative alterations in cognition are often a bi-product of PTSD and therefore a unwrap factor in diagnosis. These alterations include dissociative amnesia in relation to the backbone features of the traumatic event, persistent or distorted negative beliefs and expectations about oneself or the world, persistent blame of oneself or others for causing the traumatic event or for resulting consequences, persistent negative trauma-related emotions, markedly diminished engross in pre-traumatic significant activities, a sense of alienation/detachment from others, and a persistent inability to experience positive emotions. A patient must have at least two of these symptoms to be diagnosed with PTSD. There are many an(prenominal) well-known associated features and disorders with PTSD. Insomnia, ranging from mild to pro strand, is prevalent in most movements. Irritability, aggression, suicidal actions or reckless(prenominal)ness are behavioural symptoms that may accompany PTSD. Additionally, hypervigilance and an overstated startle response, sometimes accompanied by problems in concentration are slips of alterations in arousal and reactivity that may have begun or decline after the traumatic event. Two of these alterations are necessary for diagnosis of PTSD. former(a) factors such as duration/persistence of symptoms, functional impairment and balk of exclusion (verification that disturbance is non due to medication, substance use, or other illness) are key in the diagnosis of PTSD. By definition, the onset of PTSD requires that the given symptoms occur for a minimum of a month. Although to a relatively minor extent, most symptoms are present directly after the trauma an d will continuously aim throughout time. PTSD is two to third times more(prenominal) prevalent in females than to males. An experience of sexual assault or child sexual abuse is more likely amongst women in comparison to accidents, physical assault, combat, disaster or witness to death/injury being the likely trauma for men. The median repress of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder sick persons is 7 to 8 per coke individuals, with account ranges ranging from 7 20 per 100 individuals, the latter being combat related. The most recent statistic shows up to 8 in 100 individuals may be diagnosed with autism (DSM-V-TR). As the direct/chemical substance cause of PTSD is debatcapable, the reason for recent increase is, while speculative, soon unknown.Methods of Lucid Dreaming Therapy (LDT)Lucid Dreaming Therapy (LDT) is an upcoming format of intervention that has been specifically researched for application in relation to the treatment of PTSD. Lucid Dreaming is defined as the state in which an individual is aware that they are conceive of and subsequently obtain sustain over their woolgathers. The phenomenon of lucid envisage dates back centuries and quite possibly millennia, with reports of its use dating back to the 8th century, in the form of what was known to be Dream Yoga. With scientific hitch of the phenomenon in the late 20th Century, healing(p) possibilities began to be brought to light.Lucid Dreaming Treatment (LDT) arose from this idea as an alternative cognitive-restructuring technique, barely precisely a small amount of research has been conducted on the topic, composed mainly of eccentric person studies (Abramovitch, 1995 Brylowski, 1990 Spoormaker train den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker, new wave den Bout, Meijer, 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997).Nightmares are defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) to be extremely stir and anxiety-provoking dreams which awaken the idealist, followed by full alertness (APA , 2000). Although this is the current definition used as a diagnostic criterion, harmonize to DSM-IV-TR, and in this essay, it should be mentioned that some have challenged this definition (Spoormaker, Schredl, van den Bout, 2005 Zadra, Pilon, Donderi, 2006).In the adult population, as many as 70 % of individuals report at least an occasional(prenominal) incubus, and 2-5% suffer from recurrent nightmares (Lancee, Spoormaker, Krakow, van den Bout, 2008). Suffering from recurrent nightmares causes distress in argus-eyed life story and can result in both occupational and social dysfunction. The timidity and anxiety which the nightmare provokes linger when the dreamer awakens from it, which may prevent the individual from returning to sleep due to the worship of re-experience.It has been suggested that by becoming lucid during the nightmare, the dreamer can take control of the threatening perspective and change the course of the nightmare, thus possibly alleviating feelings of charge and anxiety. This could possibly result in trim nightmare frequency, relieving the nightmare sufferer from its negative effects both in sleep and argus-eyed life (Gackenbach Bosveld, 1989 Gavie Revonsuo, 2010 Green McCreery, 1994 Halliday, 1988 LaBerge, 1985 LaBerge Rheingold, 1990 Tholey, 1988).In LDT, the participants describe their nightmare and are then introduced to the opinion of LD, the possibility to become conscious while dreaming and to be able to alter the sum at will. The participants are then taught different LD inductive reasoning techniques, such as choosing a recurrent cue within their dreams to be a signal of being in the dream state, or quizzical the nature of reality several times during the day, asking themselves Am I dreaming? The participants then choose an alternative, more positive scenario of the nightmare, focusing on the subject they wish to alter whilst lucid (Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997).A Pi lot Study conducted by the Department of Clinical Psychology of Utrecht University in the Netherlands aimed to evaluate the effects of LDT on recurrent nightmares which is an identifying characteristic of PTSD. The participants of the analyze include 23 individuals (167, Female Male) who have recurrent episodes of nightmares. The requirement from the participants of the study was to englut out a questionnaire regarding their sleep and Diagnostic Traits of PTSD. These individuals were randomly divided into 3 groups 8 participants received one 2-hour individual LDT academic session, 8 participants received one 2-hour group LDT session, and 7 participants were placed on the waiting list. LDT consisted of exposure, mastery, and lucid dreaming exercises to train their mind to become more self aware. Participants then fill up out the same questionnaires 12 weeks after the intervention as a finish. It was found that by the follow-up, nightmare frequency of both treatment groups had sh own a decrease. There were no significant changes observed in sleep flavour and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptom. This led to the conclusion that while LDT seems effectual in cut down the frequency of nightmares, the primary therapeutic components of exposure, mastery, or lucidness remain unclear.The results of utilizing LD as treatment are consistent, indicating that LDT is effective for reducing nightmare frequency (Abramovitch, 1995 Brylowski, 1990 Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997). A one-year follow-up showed that quatern out of five participants, who prior to the treatment suffered from nightmares once every a few(prenominal) days, went down to once every few months or no long-dated had any nightmares (Zadra Pihl). In another study the treatment consisted of one two-hour session either individually, in group or, and as the control condition, being on a waiting list where no treatment was received. The participants had suffered from nightmares for over one year, at least once a week. The 12 week follow-up showed that nightmare frequency decreased in both treatment conditions, which was not the eggshell for the control group (Spoormaker van den Bout). For some participants LDT was in any case effective in reducing non-recurrent nightmares with differing meats (Zadra Pihl). Some of the participant had in addition subjectively reported slightly improved sleep quality after LDT (Spoormaker et al.) and that dream lucidity resulted in higher positive psychological elements which were similarly reflected in argus-eyed life (Zadra Pihl). Similar effects have been reported by Brylowski and Abramovitch.The studies showed that while nightmare frequency was reduced following LDT, not all of the participants dis assembleed in becoming lucid and to lucidly alter the content of the dream. One of the reasons attributed to this being the mere feeling of control which is necessary to LDT. beingness ab le to master the nightmare and not being its victim seems to play an every bit vital role as the actual altering of the content (Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997).Experiencing a traumatic event of extremely excite and life-threatening character may, for some people, develop into Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a severe anxiety disorder in which the symptoms are pile up under three clusters intrusive/re-experiencing symptoms, avoidance symptoms and hyper arousal symptoms. Those suffering from PTSD endure highly disturbing recollections of the event. They disclose heightened sensitivity towards both internal and external stimuli which resemble or in any course symbolize some aspect of the original event. When confronted with similar symbols or conditions, they experience emotional numbness and sleep difficulties.The individuals self defence mechanism leads them to avoid all such stimuli which may remind them of the event. Hence those suffering from PTSD often experience constant conflicts in interpersonal relationships which can be attributed to heightened sensitivity as a result of PTSD. It is not uncommon for them to display recurring avoidance patterns in occupational sites which may remind them of the traumatic event. (APA, 2000).In addition to heightened sensitivity and severe anxiety posttraumatic nightmares that play back or indirectly symbolize, the original traumatizing event constitute the most frequent symptom in PTSD. (APA, 2000). It has been estimated that up to 60-80% of PTSD patients suffer from posttraumatic nightmares (Spoormaker, 2008). However, research has shown that treating PTSD does not necessarily reduce nightmare frequency (Spoormaker Spoormaker Montgomery, 2008). In contrast, Imagery story Therapy (IRT), a treatment focusing on alleviating nightmare frequency in PTSD in any case reduces cosmopolitan PTSD symptom severity (Krakow Moore, 2007). query has also shown that nig htmares and disturbed sleep may be a encounter factor for developing and maintaining PTSD (Mellman Hipolito, 2006). Due to these findings, Spoormaker (2008) and Spoormaker and Montgomery (2008) stated that posttraumatic nightmares ought not to be viewed as a secondary symptom but quite as a central characteristic in the advancement of post traumatic stress disorder. Their series of research, studies and findings led them to infer that posttraumatic nightmares might develop into a disorder of its own and therefore demands specific treatment.LDT is effective in reducing the frequency of recurrent nightmares (Abramovitch, 1995 Brylowski, 1990 Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997), and thus it has been suggested that LDT could be a valuable supplement in the treatment of PTSD, focusing on decreasing the frequency of posttraumatic nightmares. As posttraumatic nightmares are a nocturnal replay of the original traumatic event, the patient is reminded of the trauma every time they dream about it. A reduction in the frequency of post traumatic nightmares would lead to an abatement of aid and anxiety due to decreased instances of number of occurrences in a given time frame. In addition to this, as anticipated by Spoormaker (2008) and Spoormaker and Montgomery (2008), posttraumatic nightmares not totally enhance but also prolong the severity of PTSD. As such, LDT could work as a supplement to already existing treatment of PTSD and reduce nightmare frequency. moreovermore, LDT offers the patient the opportunity to alter the content of the dream to a less fearfulnesssome dream, which could lead to reducing the feelings of fear and anxiety within the dream. If LDT is effective in both reducing nightmare frequency and the cold feelings of fear and anxiety, it might also be effective in decreasing the fear and anxiety associated with the original trauma during wakefulness, which in turn could lead to a reduction in general PTSD symp tom severity.While this manageable effectiveness of LDT on PTSD was proposed by Green and McCreery (1994) in the early days of LD research and recently by Gavie and Revonsuo (2010), there has only been one study where researchers attempted to treat PTSD patients with LDT (Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006). They found that nightmare frequency was significantly reduced in subjects receiving LDT, but the study did not reveal any significant reduction in general PTSD symptom severity, which the authors proposed might have been due to the low service line for PTSD symptom severity in the studied population. Moreover, the study only included one participant out of 23 who was actually diagnosed with PTSD (Spoormaker van den Bout). Gavie and Revonsuo were adamant that no conclusions can be make based on this single study and encouraged forthcoming researchers to wonder the effect of LDT on PTSD nightmares and other PTSD symptoms with larger groups of diagnosed PTSD patients and longer luc idity interventions. idolise and Control Two Key Components for LDTFear is a main component of nightmares, experienced both during sleep in relation to the nightmare content and during wakefulness, as suffering from recurrent nightmares can lead to fear of going to sleep due to the risk of re-experiencing the nightmare. Fear also represents one of the key emotions during the course of PTSD (APA, 2000). In PTSD, fear is not only related to the extreme fright which was experienced during the occurrence of the traumatizing event, but also refers to the massive feeling of fear elicited when the patient encounters associable stimuli, which often serve as reminders of the original event. Posttraumatic nightmares largely replicate the original event, meaning every time the nightmare occurs, the patient re-lives the trauma and its accompanied fear (Gavie Revonsuo, 2010).Although LDT has been shown to be effective in reducing recurrent nightmares, not all participants succeeded in becomin g lucid and able to lucidly alter the content of the nightmare. This has been suggested do be due to the fact that the feeling of control, following from the mere knowledge of the possibility to master the nightmare, is equally as important as the actual altering of the content (Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997). As such, control might constitute a key component of LDT, both in respect to lucidly to control the content of the nightmare and alter the course of the dream, and to the feeling of control brought by the thought that the fear both during the dream and during wakefulness is something that can be overcome. In this sense, LDT might prove to be effective not only for patients suffering from nightmares and reducing nightmare frequency, but also for patients suffering from disorders characterised by fear, pass them the possibility to control and reduce the level of fear they experience.In one case study, a 35-year-old woman diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and study depression complained about frequent nightmares. She suffered from one to four nightmares per week, from which her self-confidence and pledge felt threatened. She did not suffer from recurrent nightmares, but her nightmares did contain a recurrent theme, relating to the physical and mental abuse she experienced by her incur as a child, and husband as an adult. These nightmares were so intense that she had difficulties in separating her experiences in them from her experiences in reality, and sometimes spoke of them as if they were real events (Brylowski, 1990).The patient was introduced to the phenomenon of LD and was instructed to keep a dream journal, which she was to take with her to therapy each week. She was also told to perpetrate an LD induction technique every night in order to produce how to become lucid during the dream. The appearance of her father or husband in the nightmare was chosen as a dream cue, used as an indic ator to remind her that she was just dreaming. Upon recognising that she was dreaming, she was to use the realisation as a reminder that she was safely lying in bed and there was nix to fear (Brylowski, 1990).During a six-month period, which included 24 sessions with her therapist, the patient experienced three lucid dreams and was able to alter the course of the nightmare in all three cases. Using LDT resulted in reduced nightmare frequency, intensity and distress, which provided her with a sense of mastery in relation to her emotions and responses to nightmares.Following these results, her therapist suggested that these abilities and attitudes could be used in waking life when dealing with similar problems. So, whenever she was approach with a stirred emotion or a difficult situation in waking life, she was able to remind herself of how she had controlled a similar situation in the dream state. In turn, she now had the capacity to deal with the waking situation just as she had w hile (lucid) dreaming (Brylowski, 1990). As a result, LDT provided her with a sense of mastery in relation to her emotions and responses to nightmares as well as her waking life, which then resulted in entering into psychotherapy.What Green and McCreery (1994) pass by up forward, is that LD provides us with the experience of achieving control over a mental aspect, in this case distressing nightmares. They argued that gaining control over one might, in turn, have a generalised therapeutic effect. In the case study, Brylowski (1990) showed how LDT not only reduced nightmare frequency and distress, but also how engaging in LDT could extend into managing situations waking life.LDT provided the patient with the experience of mastering a imposing situation within a nightmare, which, prior to the treatment, had affected her to the point where she could not differentiate nightmares from waking events.After the treatment the patient expressed increase self-confidence, knowing that she now possessed the capacity to make changes in other waking circumstances as well.Brylowski (1990) initated the notion that, Nightmares can occur across diagnostic syndromes. According to DSM-IV-TR, nightmares can occur frequently during the course of many psychological disorders without there being a specific diagnostic symptom, for example as a part of Personality Disorders, Anxiety Disorders, Mood Disorders and schizophrenia (APA, 2000). Brylowski concluded lucid dreaming worked well for this patient as it motivate her to start and stay in therapy. He suggested that LD as a therapeutic tool ought to be considered not only for treating nightmares, but also in the treatment of personality disorders.Although diagnosed with BPD, the patient also showed symptoms related to PTSD, i.e. nightmares which directly or symbolically represented a traumatic event (history of abuse) and depression which, according to DSM-IV-TR, is highly associated with PTSD (APA, 2000). On the basis of this fact alone, it is premature to draw any conclusions on the effect of LDT on personality disorders. However, engaging in LDT did have a general therapeutic effect in this case study, and as such, LDT could be valuable as a supplement in the treatment of BPD and possibly even other personality disorders. Overall, more studies are needed to but check over the possible general therapeutic regard as of gaining control over fear and anxiety using LDT, both in relation to recurrent nightmares, and to other psychological disorders such as PTSD and personality disorders.The current studies investigating the potential therapeutic value of LD in reducing recurrent nightmares have shown promising results, where engaging in Lucid Dreaming Treatment (LDT) has resulted in decreased nightmare frequency (Abramovitch, 1995 Brylowski, 1990 Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997), slightly increased subjective sleep quality (Spoormaker et al.) and reduced nightmare inte nsity and distress (Brylowski). As such, it has been suggested across these studies that LDT might be effective in reducing posttraumatic nightmares in PTSD (Gavie Revonsuo, 2010 Green McCreery, 1994). both time a nightmare occurs, the patient experiences the trauma and extreme fear associated with it. Therefore, there is the possibility that relieving the posttraumatic nightmare could, in turn, reduce general PTSD symptom severity (Gavie Revonsuo). With larger groups of diagnosed PTSD patients and longer lucidity interventions, future research could study the effect of LDT on posttraumatic nightmares.As examined, one case study showed that attitudes and skills learned through LDT can be transferred and applied to waking life situations (Brylowski, 1990). This could be an indication that LDT has the potential to work beyond the more specific focus of alleviating nightmares. Although nightmare frequency was reduced, not all of the patients were able to reach lucidity and alter th e course of events in their nightmare (Spoormaker van den Bout, 2006 Spoormaker et al., 2003 Zadra Pihl, 1997). On the basis of this, one possible and important key component of LDT could be that of control. In the case of Phobic patients, they were found to be less likely to believe in having control over events (Leung Heimberg, 1996). Considering lucid dreamers tend to believe in their own control over waking situations to a higher degree than non-lucid dreamers (Blagrove Hartnell, 2000 Blagrove Tucker, 1994), it shows that control could be one of the key elements of LDT and that LDT could be a valuable supplement in the treatment of phobia.Further and more extensive research is required in order to investigate the underlying functioning and other effects of LDT more deeply. There is also a gap in the research, where an opportunity exists to compare LDT to other cognitive-restructuring techniques, such as Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) and exposure therapy.In order to furthe r explore the effect of LDT, longer LD induction technique practices and more intense lucidity interventions are needed for LDT to be applicable in the eliminate patient population. As seen in previous studies, there is the potential for this to sustain recurrent nightmare sufferers, PTSD and phobias, larger groups of nightmare sufferers, diagnosed PTSD and neurotic patients. There is still untapped potential for the utilisation of LD as a therapeutic tool and supplement in the treatment of these symptoms, which needs to be studied in-depth.

Impact Of Globalization On Fashion And Pharmaceutical Industries Economics Essay

violation Of sphericalisation On Fashion And Pharmaceutical Industries economic science Essay globalisation is a broad c oncept and it has been defined in legion(predicate) ways by disparate authors. According to Freedman(1999 ,p 156) and Woods(2000,p78), planetaryization core various quantitative and qualitative developments ranging from a dramatic increase in international transactions, especially in finance, to the international and spatial reorganization of intersection pointion, the global harmonization of tastes and standards, liberalization, deregulation, privatization, the arrival of bracing-made information technologies, the global diffusion of information, values, and ideas, enormous population transfers, trends towards a universal world culture, the spread of a world-wide preference for democracy, and the erosion of the nation state. Globalization has varied dimensions want economic, cultural, policy-making and environmental. It has different reachs on dif ferent industries with varying intensities based on these different dimensions. In this essay, the impact of globalisation on mode and pharmaceutic industries atomic number 18 examined and compared. This is to examine the differing intensities with which globalisation affects these two industries.In the next two sections, the different impacts of globalisation on excogitate and pharmaceutical industries are discussed separately. In the ultimately section, the impact of globalisation on some(prenominal) these industries is compared and conclusions are made.2. Impact of Globalization on Fashion IndustryThe most important elements of form patience are textile, clothing or apparel and footwear industries. It also includes food, housing, music, automobiles, perfumery and spectator products. According to Davis (1992), one main distinguishing feature of fashion constancy is its powerfulness to differentiate amidst different neighborly signifieres or otherwise called so cial differentiation. For example, the most fashion satis agenty items are always very expensive and advise be purchased by the upper class while the mall class goes for cheaper items. This made it necessary to produce the fashionable items in cheaper price in the fashion effort to achieve the selling target (Graham et al, 2006).Globalization affects fashion sedulousness with the production, distribution and selling channels. One main impact of globalisation is to keep the people informed and updated on each and all(prenominal) recent trend in the fashion effort by experient and unfermented media like radio, television, sassyspapers, internet, mobile phones etc. Consequently, now there is a tendency for imitating Western fashion all over the world successor the traditional clothing in each nation. For example to highlight secularism, a ban has been imposed on women vesture headscarfs in France by considering wearing headscarf as a traditional religious symbol. The go vernment considered wearing headscarf adversely affecting the immigrants to assimilate into the Western culture, which is called cultural acculturation (Huntington, 1997). This cultural assimilation is an important impact of globalisation in fashion industry.The updating of new trends in the fashion industry was based on the economies of scurf approach. This is intend to obtain new trends in fashion to all markets at remove times and at the correct prices for reducing the total production cost. The engage for reducing production be has resulted in the tendency among the developed nations to outsource production to growing nations like china where the production will be cheaper. This has adversely abnormal the local business in developed nations and violates the economies of scale principle. The local industries got affected badly because of this outsourcing of production and many of them were non able to continue operating consequently. Eg producing a steel, t-shirt in We stern China where no minimum wage regulations are there or else of producing it in Australia for reducing the production cost. In this campaign, achieving high profit margin in Australia is very difficult compared to that in China (Purdy, 2000).Globalization has changed this phenomenon however by reducing the transportation and communication costs and thereby increasing the accessibility of people to new fashions all over the world. This has also increase the look sharp of production in fashion compared to the olden days. The modern communication tools like internet forums dupe enabled the development and spreading of new scientific innovations, which has change magnitude the effectiveness of production in all nations. Globalization has thus resulted in to a greater extent exchange of ideas and information regarding the availability of textile fabrics and production, which has also resulted in a rise in the demand for products.The signification of all these was the brand nam es monopolizing the fashion industry and the spread of individualistic attitude instead of tolerate materialistic especially among the middle classes. Base on these global conditions, the trends in fashion industry were to tempt the individuals for self-improvement instead of accept them as they are. The most visible example of this can be seen from the suppuration trend of becoming thin models as the ideals of female beauty. This has proved to be anatomically to a greater extent correct and has several psychological and physiological impacts. However, the proscribe side is that this has created by the pressure among female models for becoming thin models (Collins, 1997).The merits of globalisation in fashion industry can be considered as the replacement in the trends among the middle class from buying outsourced products under the influence of post materialistic ideologies to buy more topically produced ones. However, the difficulty is that the population of middle class is s een to be decreasing compared to the other groups. In addition to these, other impact of globalisation was the shift in the production from developing to developed nations to go with the principle of economies of scale mostly under the influence of new and old media all over the world. However, this cannot be considered as a complimentary trend especially under the scenario of the introduce economic crisis (Graham et al, 2006).According to Abarnathy et al (2003), the globalization of textile and clothing industry is not a new one and its history can be traced back to even the ordinal century. According to this study, in the earlier days the globalization was concerned with ordure of wear down and capital across nations based on comparative factor costs and productivities for aim, capital and other inputs between nations and their impact on product costs, changes in international exchange rates, quotas and tariffs. In the enter scenario, the movement of labour and capital is based on around other aspects of distribution in addition to these like disposition retailing, product proliferation, onshore and offshore outsourcing. The Multi fictitious character Arrangement that has been existing in the textile industry for many geezerhood ended in 2005 with the decision of all WTO members to eliminate all quotas on textiles. China after accessing WTO in 2002 became a quota free nation in the WTO in the alike year.The overall picture in the fashion industry thus shows that globalization has resulted in falling transportation and communication costs .This has significantly affected the growth of the markets in the industry .The concept of lean retailing has developed combining reduced transportation and communication costs as well as new technical innovations. The main problem however with the lean retailing is that it has enhanced the pricing pressures (Abarnathy et al, 2003). As a part of globalization accomplish, the quotas on textiles also were remove d with effect from 2005.3. Impact of Globalization on Pharmaceutical IndustryIn the case of pharmaceutical industry, globalization has its effect through with(predicate) the combination of expert and economic dimensions (SickBlog, 2009). The commission of this industry is to research, develop and distribute doses. Globalization movement affects the industry through three major segments namely production, research and development and marketing. In the present era of globalization, it is describe in many studies that life-size companies in the industry, which were once in their better times, are now in difficult stages generally imputable to inefficient Research and Development (RD)(Dufala,2007Pouw,2008 etc). The established companies are inform to scram failed in producing new items into the market mainly due to the advance RD costs. For example, Pfizer, which was the fourth largest multinational pharmaceutical corporation in the world, is now veneering very bad time w ith a 10-year market exclusivity granted to new medicines.Globalization has resulted in enhanced availability of information, which has changed the role of doctors (Dufala, 2007). For example, in the case of patients who turn over information from internet, the decisions made by doctors are found to be confutable. Thus, the enhanced availability of information has affected the value chain in pharmaceuticals. It has also made the regulatory agencies to be more cautious. Thus, globalization bring has affected the marketing by shifting towards patients.As a consequence of globalization, the generic markets are reported to be growing by fetching advantage of the market exclusivity of original drugs and producing in low cost places for eg Ranbaxi and Teva. In addition to these two developments, may small biotechnology companies face problems due to the difficulty in financing the projects in these companies (Dufala, 2007).All the developments as a part of globalization treat have r esulted in enhancing competition in the industry while it has not increased pressures for restructuring inappropriate other industries. beat Research Organizations (CROs) have prominent role because of globalization process (Shuchman, 2007). The globalization has resulted in increased mergers and acquisitions of the CROs. Examples of CRO s are Pharmaceutical crossing Development (PPD), Quintiles, Parexel, Kendle and Covance. The CROs are technologically very innovative and makes se of new business concepts. Thus, it can be seen that CROs were the main actors who were able to utilize the benefits of globalization .At the same time big pharmaceutical companies were not able to do so.It is argued that globalization has improved the conditions of developing nations by improving access to medicine by joining organizations like World Trade Organization (WTO). This has been enabled through compulsory licensing or by importing cheaper versions of drugs in advance the expiry of patents (Slick Blog, 2009). On the other hand, it is argued that the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which increases the scope, duration and reporting of the industrial patents of the WTO members, has marginalized the traditional knowledge of local people. Moreover, it has been argued that the growth and development of the home(prenominal) pharmaceutical companies are adversely affected by TRIPS (Pouw, 2008). However, exceptional cases are the Indian pharmaceutical companies like Ranbaxi and When Cipla, which have obtained significant growth and grow their operations.It is also argued that globalization has adversely affected the developing nations through some other ways. In spite of the TRIPS having clause that exempts nations suffering from diseases like help from patent observation, nations like America opposed this through international fair assemble suits .Thus many developing nations like South Africa were left in a difficult situation (Slick Blog , 2009). Hence, it is argued that TRIPS has supported in establishing the dominance of some big pharmaceutical companies and rising their presence general (Pouw, 2008). The pharmaceutical industry has affectionate out the solvent for this by outsourcing the production and research and development process as a part of the globalization process. These were intended to make them more cost effective in response to their rising costs. However studies have shown that these costs have been overestimated(Sampath,2005) .For example, the average cost of developing a pharmaceutical drug includes the costs of borrowing money to finance the RD process and the marketing costs of the product in addition to the costs of RD. This has overestimated the total RD costs.In addition to these, as a part of the globalization process, the big pharmaceutical companies are forced to perform many human trials with their new drugs before releasing them to the market. However, the main problem with this is th at most consumers are reported not to be willing to figure in this process. For example, the consumers were not willing to participate in the phase three trial of Macugen, the eye disease drug by Pfizer (Shah, 2006).It is argued that the reforms as a part of the globalization process has resulted in a national ruin by the developing nations through origin of markets and through the loans provided by IMF and World Bank attached with stringent conditions (Harvey, 2005).Globalization has also affected the marketing process in pharmaceutical industry through preventing the direct to consumer marketing in most countries and promoting advertisement through global media. This type of advertisement through global media is reported to have created warp images of health and diseases (Petryna and Kleinman, 2006).For example, the diseases like AIDS , are picturized as incurable by these advertisements which has resulted in the marginalization of many developing nations. Moreover, most of the advertisements have been related to allergic diseases rather than the real health crises. This has resulted in creating distorted images of many diseases and medicines.Overall, it is reported that the globalization process has increased the profits in pharmaceutical industry through reducing RD and production costs. This has necessitated the need for sustainable capital, which has resulted in the mergers of big pharmaceutical companies. Thus, the big pharmaceutical companies have started monopolizing the industry leaving the developing nations to be exploited for cheap labour and drug testing (Pouw, 2008,). The outsourcing process, which is supposed to offset the rising costs in the industry, is reported to have negative implications as discussed here. The public private partnerships, where the governments and big companies live together for resolving health crises, however are expected to represent many advantages for the developing nations (Bull and McNeill, 2007).4. Conclusion In this essay, the impact of globalization on two industries the fashion industry and pharmaceutical industry are discussed. In the case of fashion industry, the globalization impacts are through the combination of cultural, technological and economic dimensions. In the case of pharmaceutical industries, the impact is through a combination of cultural and economic dimensions. In the case of both the industries, globalization has resulted in decreasing the transportation and communication costs. Moreover, it enhances the availability of information through the world media. In the case of fashion industry, these have resulted in a shift from using the outsourced products by the middle class to more locally produced items based on the economies of scale principle. This has resulted in shifting labour from developing to developed nations .Though this is intended to make the production in a more cost effective manner, it is not obtained to be favourable in the present economic condition. The impact of globalization has affected the production, distribution and marketing sides of this industry. The increased availability of information had its impact through the cultural dimension of globalization in the case of fashion industry. The positive impacts of globalization in this industry include aspects like enhancing the speed of production, reducing time lag between production and delivery and creating an individualistic approach necessitating the need for self-improvement. At the same time, negative impacts include the shifting of labour from developed to developing nations.In the case of pharmaceutical industry, the focus is on the research and development of drugs in addition to its production. Hence, globalization affects this industry through three channels production, research and development as well as marketing unlike the fashion industry. The reduction in transportation and communication costs had its economic and technological impacts. Though this has helped in reducing the production and RD costs, this had created dominance for the big pharmaceutical corporations. The enhanced availability of information made the public more aware(predicate) of the adverse cause of drugs and hence made the decisions of doctors in some cases questionable .This can be considered as a positive aspect of globalization in the industry. At the same time, the enhanced communication through worldwide media has created distorted images in the minds of public regarding many diseases and the concept of health itself. second joint the globalization process has increased the profitability of the industry this has resulted in the monopoly of multinational giants in the industry. This has adversely affected the domestic pharmaceutical companies with only a very few exceptions.In the case of pharmaceutical industry, globalization process ahs resulted in creating prominent role for ordinal party players like the CROs unlike the fashion industry. Many big companies who were earlier profitable got adversely affected due to the rising production and RD costs. Outsourcing which was fond as a solution to this had many negative cultural and economic effects. However, compared to the fashion industry the effects of outsourcing were not so intense in the pharmaceutical industry, which can be understood from the discussion.In the case of fashion industry, Quotas and tariffs were eliminated on textiles as a part of the decision of WTO members. In the case of pharmaceutical industries, TRIPS agreement was aimed to service the developing nations by increasing the access to medication for developing nations. At the same time, TRIPS was obtained to leave the developing nations in difficult situation by marginalizing them in many cases. In the case of fashion industry, the globalization process has resulted in increasing competition and restructuring of the industry with a shift of labour from developing to developed nations. However, in the case of pharma ceutical industry, though globalization ahs resulted in enhanced competition, it has not resulted in the restructuring of the entire industry. Rather, it has created the emergence of the third party players, the CROs that made use of new business concepts and technological innovations.The preceding(prenominal) discussion thus shows that globalization process has affected both the fashion and pharmaceutical industries but through different intensities. The dimensions of globalization through which it affects both the industries are also little bit different. In the case of correspondent dimensions of globalization also, the intensities of impacts are different for both the industries depending on the nature and organise of both the industries. Globalization affects both the industries through different channels in spite of the similarities. Hence, it can be concluded that industry specific factors play important role in determining the intensity of the impact of globalization on each industry. The discussion above thus shows that industry specific studies are more relevant in examining the impact of globalization. Though globalization has both positive and negative impacts on industry performance, a generalise picture cannot be obtained in this regard. Macro studies may conceal many factors regarding the impact of globalization as is clear from the discussion above.

Africas FDI Inflow 1980-2003 Analysis

Africas FDI Inflow 1980-2003 AnalysisCHAPTER ONE incoming1.1 INTRODUCTIONForeign Direct Investment (henceforth FDI) is atomic number 53 of the most grave integral parts of todays highly talked about global parsimony. The enormous growth of FDI towards ontogenesis countries over the past few decades has ignited a immense following from researchers in twain(prenominal) sparings and finance fields. A depend of studies stir been undertaken with the aim to empiric tout ensembley dig into what motivates fuddleds to be embroild in cross-b pasture enthronizations and what motivates countries to undertake different policy reforms and other measures in pursuit of attr crooking FDI. in that respect is a consensus among FDI researchers that FDI smoke improve the telephone receiver farmings teaching in heterogeneous ways even when irrelevant crockeds do not provide externalities. The clears of FDI to pass catcher countries ar not ambiguous. FDI is seen as a solution to a countrys sparing woes by providing the most postulateed overseas swell that boosts the sparing activities of a soldiers country. According to Goldberg (2000), FDI leads to transfer of technology and other skills from conflicting firms to local anesthetic firms. It is by FDI that supplementary resources much(prenominal) as working capital, focusing, technology and personnel extend available to host countries. These resources whitethorn stimulate existing frugal activities in a host country, encourage home(a) competition, and raise the level of discipline output. The presence of outside(prenominal) producers is primarily believed to benefit the host countrys citizens by introducing a variety of new harvest-feasts into the interior(prenominal) merchandise, which argon of superior character and press down prices. Most fundamentally, FDI is a channel through which recipient countries gain accession to planetary pecuniary markets and earn distant supercede . FDI creates a takings of fight opportunities as contradictory entities afford business units in various emplacements passim the host country and relatively higher wage computes ar offered. Backward linkages and spillovers are secondary benefits of FDI enjoyed by the recipient countries. Spillovers spur punishing growth in industries into which FDI flows, in particular when the competition surrounded by municipal and foreign firms is efficient. Foreign firms as well go into joint ventures with domestic firms and a cosmic percentage of profits generated through such collaborations are ploughed grit into the domestic market, thereby contributing to the host countrys macroeconomic growth and development without necessarily providing externalities. Externalities provide another form of benefits that FDI recipient countries enjoy. The existence of foreign direct investors spawns the seepage of managerial, personnel, and technical expertise from the foreign to domestic com panies. For instance, honest-to-god Mutual plc training programme in southeast Africa may benefit the southbound African insurance and financial sectors as a whole. It is beca part of the above-named benefits that developing countries are actively embarking on measures involving macroeconomic as well as socio- semi semipolitical reforms with clear intentions of advancing their investing climate to get FDI on a large exceed and achieving sustained economic growth. Developing countries chip in formerly depended on loans and functionary development financial aid as a source of foreign capital, principally provided by international agencies such as the World Bank and OECD countries. However, the flow of such funds from these institutions has been declining. For instance, Asiedu (2002) reports that financial assistance to Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) fell from 6% in 1990 to just 3.8% in 1998 and foreign aid per capita fell from an average of $35 for the point 1989-92 to $2 for t he flow 1993-97. It is in situations like this, that FDI plays a pivotal role as an resource source of foreign capital for the developing world. For developing and the least highly- authentic countries that are making efforts to attract FDI as a way to set up their economic growth and hence their sustained development, it is particularly essential to describe and comprehend the prime divisors that shape FDI inflows as they apply to each country in particular. Since FDI plays a pivotal role in the growth dynamics of a country, a number of factors that are believed to influence FDI inflows towards developing countries curb been intensely analyzed. Among these factors the following earn been most frequently considered exchange rate volatility, market size, gross domestic product growth, handle openness, infrastructure development, country size ( withal size of economy), per capita gross domestic product, quality of the labour force, labour toll, largeness, return on capit al, merchandise orientation, political stability. such(prenominal) analysis has immediate policy relevance as it identifies areas of comparative advantage that these countries should favour in terms of resource allocation.1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe main(prenominal) aim of this battlefield is to carry out an existential investigation of the factors explaining FDI inflows to southmost Africa over the diaphragm 1980-2003. The canvass of previous theoretical research and the reassessment of previous observational enjoin are means to this end.1.3 THE STRUCTURE OF A PAPERThe structure of this subject is as follows Chapter 2 provides a re visual sense of any(prenominal)(prenominal) the theoretical and empirical literature on factors believed to be the study driving force behind inward FDI activities for host countries. In Chapter 3, the paper provides an overview of the atomic number 16 Africas macroeconomic performance, FDI regulatory framework before long in devote a nd incentives provided by the administration to foreign investors. Chapter 4 discusses the information set and econometric methods used to carry out time series analysis for the study. The entropy and variable preciseations are also described and clarified in this chapter. Chapter 5 reports and discusses the econometric results. A summary of findings, conclusions and policy implications are presented in Chapter 6.CHAPTER deuce REVIEW OF FDI LITERATURE2.1 INTRODUCTIONThe main aim of this chapter is to present theories of FDI as developed by previous research and review the empirical evidence on the epitopes of FDI. Before these are considered in to a greater extent(prenominal) details, a plan overview of the definition of FDI and related concepts is provided. Given that FDI has direct effects on the economic growth of the host country, a particularised section provides a apprize exploration of the relationship betwixt FDI and growth.2.2 FDI DEFINITION AND CONCEPTSIn its arc hetypal form, FDI is conventionally defined as the physical investment made by acquiring foreign summations such as land and factory buildings with operational overtop residing with the parent company (Buckley, 2004). The definition can be extended to admit such investments that research to exercise considerable influence on the management of the foreign entity. A parent company is required to hold at least 10% of the ordinary divvy ups or voting rights in order to exercise control over an incorporated foreign company. An self-command bet on of less than the stated 10% is regarded as foreign portfolio investment and does not qualify as FDI. FDI made by transnational companies (TNCs) is an indication of privileged growth and it can be made in the form of greenfield investment or mergers and acquisitions. Greenfield FDI refers to an investment where a new entity is established in a foreign location. It entails formation of completely new drudgery facilities in the recipient c ountry (Eun and Resnick, 2007). Cross-border mergers and acquisitions are twofold. On one hand, they involve merging both domestic and foreign companies into one bigger company. On the other hand, they involve an acquisition of a domestic company by a foreign company. FDI is beneficial for the host country as it is a channel through which foreign capital and new technology are provided. FDI is regarded as a stimulus for economic activities and accelerated growth. The OECD (2002) describes FDI as a catalyst for hasten up the development process. Nevertheless, a recipient country must introduction a certain standard of development in front it attracts FDI. Dunning (1977, 1979) identifies fundamental factors including firm specific and host country specific advantages that must be met before FDI occurs. These advantages are discussed in detail below.2.3 FDI AND ECONOMIC GROWTHA number of empirical studies sport analysed the relationship in the midst of FDI and the economic growth of a host country. Lipsey (2000) finds that FDI and economic growth are unconditionally correlated. Abwona (2001) urges that the effects of FDI on growth may vary among countries, as not all countries are at the same level of development. Lim (2001) points out that FDI positively affects economic growth of a host country by transferring advanced technology from the industrialized to developing economies (Lim, 2001, p.3). Conceptually, FDI increases GDP growth because it increases the amount of goods and services produced in a host country. Benefits of FDI are solo evident in change magnitude level of output because of the host countrys ability to absorb technological spillovers from foreign firms. This, therefore, adverts that the positive contribution of FDI on growth is conditional upon the recipient countrys absorbent capacity of all the benefits that FDI brings. Much as there is general knowingness that FDI influences economic growth, there is no general agreement on the c ausative relation among FDI and economic growth. De Mello (1997) argues that the relationship could run either way, as the prospects of economic growth figure out the host country more showy to FDI. Once operational in a host country, FDI enhances growth by allowing the host country to integrate new inputs and technology to expand doing.2.4 THEORIES OF FDIIn a study of TNCs, Hymer (1976) explains that because foreign TNCs have offsetting monopolistic advantages over domestic companies, they are able to compete with domestic companies that are in a better personate with regard to knowledge and understanding of the domestic market. Kindleberger (1969) who suggests that these advantages should be adequate to tower over limitations and must be company specific reiterates this. According to Hymer (1976) and Kindleberger (1969), these advantages can be in the form of access to ownership patents, technological expertise, managerial expertise, marketing skills, etc. These skills should be scarce or completely unavailable to domestic companies. The basis of the argument here is on the possibility of market imperfections in factor markets and product differentiation. In table service where market imperfections exist, firms find it rewarding to engage in cross-border direct investment instead of merchandiseing to foreign markets or licensing. In this way, they can amply utilize their monopolistic market supremacy (Assefa and Haile, 2006). In the same twelvemonth as Hymer (1976), Buckley and Casson (1976) developed the ingrainedization possible action. This theory stipulates that in some instances it is suitable for TNCs to refrain from licensing and to contain cross-border direct engagement over exporting. FDI occurs when TNCs undertake an internal operation rather than a market operation. TNCs internalize their activities to circumvent impediments presented to them by the external market. These impediments arise because of market flaws such as lack of manag erial expertise, human capital, etc. The benefits of internalization include both time and cost savings. According to Moosa (2002), the rationale behind internalization is the persistence of externalities in both goods and factor markets. However, Rugman (1980) disapprove of the internalization theory by contesting that it cannot be by trial and error analysed. Twelve long time afterward introducing internalization theory, Buckley (1988) came back to warn that the theory cannot be directly analysed, claiming that the theory needs to be modified in order to allow rigorous analysis. He urges that there is still a room to develop advanced theories that can be empirically tested. other line of study dealing with factors influencing FDI is based on Vernons (1979) product liveness cycle venture. Assefa and Haile (2006) and Udo and Obiora (2006) relate their studies to Vernons product life cycle to explain that FDI is a stage in the life cycle of a new product from innovation to matur ity. Home production is unique and strategic for some time, after which the new product reaches maturity and looses uniqueness. New similar products also engrave the market and intensify competition. At this stage, the firms would then replicate the home production in trim cost foreign locations that offer cost benefits to the firm. The lower cost that can be achieved by producing in foreign locations can be due to cheaper factors of production and complementary government policies. Dunning (1993) develops an eclectic theory which is referred to as OLI framework. OLI is the short name for ownership, location and internalization advantages. In his theory, Dunning identifies trio sets of advantages that must be met for a firm to get involved in foreign direct investment. The first set is ownership advantages, which entail technological expertise, patents, marketing skills, managerial capabilities and the brand name. A TNC must have these firm specific advantages over its rivals in a foreign location. In the absence seizure of these advantages, the firm will be exposed to fierce competition from its rivals in the market it serves. The second set of advantages that must be met is the location advantages, which Dunning (1993) explains as the degree to which the foreign location is more favourable to invest in. Examples of these advantages are an abundance of innate resources, exceptional infrastructure development, political and macroeconomic stability. These advantages should be adequate to validate investment in a preferred foreign location. The third set of advantages is internalization benefits. The ability of a TNC to internalize its operations is the manner in which it enters foreign location. According to Dunning (1993), this could be by a greenfield project, product licensing or acquisition of foreign assets as long as it fits the management strategy, the nature of the firms business and the firms long strategic plan. Another rationale for FDI to occur is embodied in the in the industrial organization hypothesis (IOH) (Tirole, 1988). This hypothesis presupposes that there are various potential uncertainties that a TNC faces in foreign markets. The uncertainties may be political, religious, social, cultural and so on. If the firm decides to establish a subsidiary in a foreign location condescension these uncertainties then the benefits accrued should be adequate to outweigh these obvious take chancess and restrictions. Lall and Streeten (1977) evince the immensity of marketing and managerial skills, availability and ownership of capital, production technologies, surmount economies and access to keen materials. They also put forward that FDI occurs because of the complexity of calling intangible assets abroad. Examples of these un great dealable intangible assets include a TNCs organizational ability, executive skills, position in foreign financial markets and a well-established network with different government bureaucrats. 2.5 MOTIVES FOR FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENTAssefa and Haile (2006) assert that the ownership and internalization advantages as developed in Dunning (1993) eclectic theory are firm specific advantages, while location advantages are regarded as host country qualities. Firms choose locations where all these advantages can be combined together to advance the firms long-term profitability. Asiedu (2002) and Dunning (1993) distinguish the motives of FDI as either market pursuit or non-market want (efficiency and resource seeking). According to Dunning (1993), a market seeking FDI is that which aims at serving the domestic and regional markets. This means that goods and services are produced in the host country, sold and distributed in the domestic or regional market (Asiedu, 2002). This sympathetic of FDI is therefore, driven by host country characteristics such as market size, income levels and growth potential of the host market and so on. A non-market seeking FDI can either be classif ied as resource/asset seeking and/or efficiency seeking. Resource seeking FDI aims at acquiring resources that may not be available in the country of origin. Such resources may comprise natural resources, availability and productivity of both practiced and unskilled labour forces as well as availability of raw materials. Efficiency seeking FDI aims at reducing the overall cost of factors of production especially when the firms activities are geographically scattered (Dunning, 1993). This allows the firm to exploit scale and scope economies as well as diversify risks. Apart from the economic factors that are believed to be the major motivation for FDI, the host countrys FDI policy also plays a major role in attracting or dissuadering FDI. This therefore, suggests a need for the host country to develop policies that provide a conducive surround for business if the authorities believe in the benefits of FDI. This necessitates a regular monitor of the activities of TNCs and an accepta nce by the host government that, if FDI is to make its best contribution, policies that were attach in the absence of FDI may require amendments in its presence. For example, macroeconomic policies may need to be altered in order to provide a favourable climate for FDI. Stronger competition as a result of FDI may also induce a host government to operate an potent and efficient competition policy.2.6 EMPIRICAL LITERATUREThere is an extensive empirical literature on the determinants of FDI. A large share of this literature focuses on the pull factors or, equivalently, on the host countrys location advantages. Given the increase flows of FDI towards developing countries, especially in Asia, most academic researchers have been poised to investigate what factors influence flows of FDI into those countries. The African continent instead remains under researched, especially a country such as southerly Africa, which is regarded by umteen as one of the economic giants of the continent. T he following studies have attempted to examine the link between FDI and forecaster variables such as market size, GDP growth, inflation, exchange rate, political stability and many more. Goldar and Ishigami (1999) use panel entropy techniques to empirically analyse the determinants of FDI for 11 developing countries of East, Southeast and South Asia for the age 1985-1994. The authors estimate two separate models, one for Japanese FDI and the other for inwardness FDI flowing towards these countries. They report a strong positive relationship between the size of the economy and FDI inflows for the two models. They also find a positive relationship between FDI inflows and the exchange rate. Intuitively, this suggests that lower exchange rates should make the host countrys exports more competitive in foreign markets and therefore act as an heavy factor for attracting FDI. Interestingly, Goldar and Ishigami (1999) report contrasting results for the relationship between FDI inflows, domestic investment and business deal openness for the two models. They find both domestic investment and betray openness to be significant determinants for the Japanese FDI model but the authors fail to find support for the two variables for the numerate FDI model. Market size has generally been accepted as an important factor influencing FDI by many empirical studies. In a cross-country empirical study, Chakrabarti (2001) finds strong support for market size as an important determinant of FDI. He barely reports that the relationship between FDI and other explanatory variables, such as trade openness, tax income, wages, the exchange rate, the GDP growth rate and the trade balance is highly sensitive to atomic changes in these variables. That is, a small change in these variables is believably to deter or increase FDI inflows with a large magnitude. Campos and Kinoshita (2003) use two trade related variables to examine the termination to which trade openness influences FDI inf lows for 25 countries in transition between 1990 and1998. The authors utilise an external liberalization index and trade dependence as proxies for trade openness. They argue that, the greater degree of trade openness does not only increase international trade, but also increases FDI inflows. Chang et al. (2009) also study the importance of trade openness in the economic growth of a country. They use a sample of 82 countries from all over the world for the distributor point 1960-2000. They conclude that trade openness, used in conjunction with complementary trade policies, enhances economic growth through increased FDI inflows into a country. Their finding further bolsters the position of trade openness as an important determinant of FDI. subject and Ahmed (1979) seek to analyse the determinants of manufacturing FDI in 58 developing countries for the period 1966-1970. They fork these determinants under three categories economic, social and political. Among the four important econ omic variables they study, infrastructure, per capita GDP and GDP growth rate appear to be important foreshadowor variables while the absolute of size of GDP does not help to predict FDI. They also put forward that foreign investors view long-term political stability and the extent of urbanization as important factors when choosing the location for their investments. Nunnenkamp (2002) adopts Spearman correlations to study the relationship between FDI and its determinants for 28 developing countries between 1987 and 2000. His findings show that variables such as GDP growth rate, entry restrictions, post-entry restrictions, market size, infrastructure and quality of the labour force, as measured by the years of schooling, have no effect on FDI inflows. However, he also reports positive effects on FDI of non-traditional factors such as factor cost. That is, the cheaper costs of factors of production, like lower costs of raw materials and lower costs of labour, are essential for attra cting efficiency-seeking FDI. Tsai (1991) presents an opposing view by arguing that in Taiwan FDI inflows have increased with increasing labour costs. His findings suggest that in Taiwan, there are far more important determinants of FDI than cheaper costs of factors. Indeed Tsai (1991) observes that for the years 1965-1985, Taiwans economic performance was spectacular, with an expanding domestic market and purchasing power of the economy as measured by rising GDP per capita. Singh and Jun (1995) look into three determinants of FDI in developing countries. They fabricate particular attention to socio-political stability, favourable business operating conditions and export orientation. They engage other macroeconomic variables as control factors. The authors use a political risk index (PRI) developed by Business Environment encounter Intelligence, S.A (BERI, 2009), as a measure of socio-political instability. When used in conjunction with traditional determinants of FDI such as GD P growth rate and per capita GDP, PRI appears to be highly associated with FDI for 31 developing countries for the period 1970-1993. Schneider and Frey (1995) also find political instability to be a significant deterrent of FDI for 54 less developed countries, considered over three different years 1976, 1979 and 1980. Furthermore, Singh and Jun (1995) employ an operation risk index (ORI) also developed by BERI, S.A, and taxes on international trade and transactions (ITAX). They further find that ORI is highly associated with FDI flows and has a positive sign. ITAX is also reported as an important determinant of FDI. They also find export orientation to be highly related to FDI flows, especially manufacturing exports. Asiedus (2002) investigation on the determinants of FDI in 71 developing countries provides further evidence of the importance of these extensively studied FDI determinants. Asiedu goes a little further to assess whether the same determinants of FDI have a similar impa ct on FDI flowing towards Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) between 1980 and 1998. After a detailed analysis, she concludes that factors influencing FDI in other developing countries do not necessarily have a similar impact on FDI flows to SSA. She notes that infrastructure development and a high return on capital influence FDI flows towards developing countries in other continents, but the same factors have no influence on FDI flows towards SSA. Bende-Nabende (2002) also undertakes a study probe into the determinants of FDI flows towards 19 SSA countries for the period 1970-2000. In this study, market growth, trade liberalization and export orientation turn out to be important factors explaining why countries are able to attract foreign investors. Obwona (2001) argues that the Ugandan market size has been one of the driving forces behind FDI flows into the Ugandan economy between 1975 and 1991. Yasin (2005) uses panel data from a sample of 11 SSA countries for the period 1990-2003. His fin dings lead to the conclusion that official development assistance (ODA), trade openness, growth of the labour force and the exchange rate are important determinants of FDI, while his findings do not suggest that the growth rate of per capita GDP, a political repression index and a manifold risk index have explanatory power. Ahmed et al. (2005) examine the composition of capital flows between 1975 and 2002, to assess if South Africa is different from 81 other emergent markets. They classify relevant factors into macroeconomic performance, investment environment, infrastructure and resources, quality of institutions, financial development and global factors. The authors argue that some factors influencing capital flows are exceptional to particular forms of capital, while other factors have comparable effects on FDI, bond and equity flows. They further assert that the more open the economy is to international trade, the richer it is in natural resources, and the fewer barriers to profit repatriation it has, the more likely it is to attract FDI on a large scale. The implication of this study is that South Africa should ease its capital controls in order to avoid deterring FDI. South Africa is currently allowing repatriation of profits only within six months (Ahmed et al., 2005). The agglomeration effect is another important factor that can be used to explain why countries that have attracted FDI in the past still receive a large share of it. Notable magnitudes of existing FDI stocks in recipient countries tend to attract more FDI inflows (Lim, 2001). Foreign investors incorporate the size of the existing FDI stocks in their decisions as they seek locations where to expand their operations. Campos and Kinoshita (2003) also confirm that for 25 countries in transition between 1990 and1998, foreign investors tend to locate where others are investing, as the decision by other firms implies a favourable atmosphere for investment offered by counties in which they l ocate. Asiedu (2003), Loree and Guisinger (1995) and Lee (2005) consider effective government policies, especially the monetary and fiscal policies, as important factors that can be used to effectively attract or deter FDI inflows. Loree and Guisinger (1995) use effective tax rates for 48 countries (classified into developed and developing countries) in 1977 and 1982. After finding the effective tax policy variable to be significant, they conclude that government policies are important and that policy reforms are likely to attract more FDI. Lee (2005) investigates some evidence on the effectiveness of policy barriers to FDI for 153 developing and developed countries between 1995 and 2001. He finds strong support for the proposition that restrictive public policies deter FDI inflows. Asiedu (2003) studies the effects of investment policy on FDI for 22 SSA countries over the period 1984-2000. Her findings show that governments can increase FDI flows by developing and implementing pol icies that provide investor hail-fellow-well-met environment.sCHAPTER 3 SOUTH AFRICAS MACROECONOMIC OVERVIEW, FDI REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND INCENTIVES.INTRODUCTIONThe direct of this chapter is to provide an overview of the South African macroeconomic performance over the period of study (1980-2003). This has been based on two regimes the apartheid regime and the democratic regime. other(a) sections of the chapter are dedicated to the regulatory framework for FDI and the incentives offered to foreign investors by the South African government.3.2 THE APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICAAccording to Lester et al.(2000), the pre-1994 period was one during which South Africa was politically unstable as a result of the racial discrimination ism (apartheid) that was adopted by the disciplineist government then in power. This created internal resistance by black South Africans, who protested against the racial discrimination practices. In 1960, the Nationalist government banned organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC) that represented black South Africans and this intensified demonstrations against the government. In receipt to the protests, the Nationalist government using armed forces, killed and arrested many black South Africans activists. These incidents drew attention from the international community, who condemned the repression against black South Africans by a Nationalist government that predominantly looked after the recreates of white South Africans. These events also caused distress among foreign investors, who became sceptical of the prospects of South Africas economic stability and the security measures of their investments. This led to capital outflow, a mounting pressure on the South African rand in foreign exchange markets, effective economic sanctions and the closing off of South Africa from the rest of the world. Despite being blessed with an abundance of natural resources, especially gold, diamonds, platinum and other minerals, South Afr ica was not a favoured location for investment during this period. Political instability, investment insecurity and violation of human rights disadvantageously inhibited FDI. Realizing the challenges that came with economic isolation, the Nationalist government, in an attempt to uphold domestic capital growth, introduced incentives for import substitution industries such as car manufacturers and military equipment (Lester et al., 2000, p.187). Despite these attempts, this period saw South Africa undergoing falling investment, diminishing international reserves, sinking economic growth, soaring rates of inflation and lofty interest rates (Nowak, 2005). During this period, the economic performance was notably disappointing as investors left(a) South Africa in search of other locations that offered better conditions for their investments. As shown in Table 3.1, the GDP growth rate was declining in some years with an average yearbook growth estimated at 1.44% per annum for the years 1980-1990. In addition, inflation and interest rates were continuously increasing with no signs of stabilising. All these were signals of difference of effective control of macroeconomic policies.Table 3.1 GDP growth, inflation and interest rates in South Africa for the period 1980-1990Year19801981198219831984198519861987198819891990GDP annual % change5.4-0.4-1.95

The Nature of the Legalism and Its Significance :: essays research papers

In contrary to its contemporary antagonist philosophical schools, who advocate the practices of humanity and the rightness and put ideal of the past, the Legalists, in their complete rejection of the traditional ethics, embraces the power of political power and uph honest-to-goodness a society of laws and punishments. As the old feudal grounds decayed and the smoke of endemic warfare suffused, the need for a more rational government that can afford greater centralised power so as to strengthen a state against its touch on increased substantially among the Warring States. Such a rising chirk up necessitated the emergence of the Legalists and further predetermined the Legalists inherent nature realistic, totalitarian and problem-solving which, with the acknowledgement of its significance and duty in the stream of history, finds its hegemonic character as well. In function, the Legalist is more of a powerful and influential government consultative direction than a philosophic al school. In practice, they openly advocate war as a means of state expansion and transforming deal into more grovelling and loyal or inversely, a way for its people to server the state they conceive a political structure where all government apparatus and social institutions reside under an absolute monarch, who has the ultimate power and association his foundation in an elaborately self-contained, austerely impartial and severely tyrannical legal machinery the state would also find no existence of the rather schools of thoughts if not their total annihilation loyalty to their emperor and weakened minds among people would prevail, bringing about social stability enabling intensive and cost-effective farming. It is thus rational for us to question the validity of preconditions upon which these ideas were acquired and the legitimacy of the ideas and later on but more importantly, how did the Legalists become the only classical thoughts had its teaching adopted as the sole o fficial doctrine of a regime rule all China and bring about the unification of China and lastly, the companionship of the all-too-soon collapse of the ephemeral Qin Dynasty and the Legalists thoughts.As for the precondition of the Legalists thoughts, there are a few fundamental premises or judgments that we can find from the texts. As an independent school of thoughts in order to distinguish itself among all Hundreds of Schools and set aside all past ideals and standards, the Legalists, first of all, believed in the inevitability of a constant change in society. As noted by Han Fei (d.